What is the process by which we learn to associate stimuli with reflex like responses Group of answer choices?

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Three Major Types of Learning

1)      Learning through association  - Classical Conditioning

2)      Learning through consequences – Operant Conditioning

3)      Learning through observation – Modeling/Observational Learning

LEARNING

Learning is a change in behavior or in potential behavior that occurs as a result of experience.  Learning occurs most rapidly on a schedule of continuous reinforcement.  However it is fairly easy to extinguish… switching to variable reinforcement after the desired behavior has been reached prevents extinction.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

If a neutral stimulus (a stimulus that at first elicits no response) is paired with a stimulus that already evokes a reflex response, then eventually the new stimulus will by itself evoke a similar response.  (UCS, UCR, CS, CR)

·        Each pairing of the CS with the UCS strengthens the connection between the CS and CR.

·        Timing is important.  Usually the strongest and fastest conditioning occurs when the CS is presented about ½ to one second before the UC.

·        EXTINCTION - If the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, the CS-CR bond will weaken and the CR will eventually disappear.

·        STIMULUS GENERALIZATION - Once conditioning has occurred the subject may respond not only to the CS, but to stimuli similar to it.  For example, many of our likes and dislikes of new people and situations come from generalization based on similarities to past experiences.

·        STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION – opposite of stimulus generalization.  SD is the ability to detect differences among stimuli.  This procedure is sometimes used to test the ability of nonverbal subjects to discriminate among various stimuli, such as color (air puff / eye blink).

OPERANT CONDITIONING

The organism operates on its environment in some way; the behavior in which it engages are instrumental to achieving some outcome.

LAW of EFFECT

If a response is followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence, that response will be strengthened.  If a response is followed by an unpleasant or negative state of affairs, it will be weakened.

Differences Between Operant and Classical Conditioning

1)      In classical conditioning, the conditional behavior (CR) is triggered by the particular stimulus (CS) and is therefore called an elicited behavior.  Operant behavior is an emitted behavior in the sense that it occurs in a situation containing many stimuli and seems to be initiated by the organism.  In a sense the subject chooses when and how to respond.

2)      In classical conditioning, behavior (CR) is affected by something that occurs before the behavior (the CS-UCS pairing).  In contrast, the operant response is affected by what happens after the behavior – that is by its consequences.

Positive Reinforcement

Any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the occurrence of a behavior that it follows.

Shaping

Shaping is the method of successive approximations.  Shaping reinforces the behaviors as they get closer and closer to the desired behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement is anything that increases a behavior that results in the reinforcers removal.

Punishment

Any consequence that decreases the future occurrence of a behavior that produces it.

When You Remove a Positive Stimulus

Extinction       If the stimulus is a reinforcer for the behavior (e.g., parent ignores child/withdraws attention when child  acts up to get attention)

    Response Cost

       OPERANT CONDITIONING CONSEQUENCES

Learning involves a change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

Differentiate among classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Learning involves physical changes in the nervous system, such as the strengthening of synapses, the activation of neural pathways, or the pruning of neural pathways. These changes elicit specific responses to environmental stimuli.
• The field of behavioral psychology focuses largely on measurable behaviors that are learned, rather than trying to understand internal states such as emotions and attitudes.
• Types of learning include classical and operant conditioning (both forms of associative learning) as well as observational learning.
• Classical conditioning, initially described by Ivan Pavlov, occurs when a particular response to a stimulus becomes conditioned to respond to another associated stimulus.
• Operant conditioning, initially described by B. F. Skinner, is the learning process by which a response is strengthened or extinguished through the reinforcement or punishment of a behavior.
• Observational learning, initially described by Albert Bandura, occurs through observing the behaviors of others and imitating those behaviors, even if there is no reinforcement at the time.

Key Terms

• Ivan Pavlov: (1849–1936) A Russian physiologist known for his theories of classical conditioning.
• Albert Bandura: (1925–present) A psychologist and learning theorist who first proposed social learning theory and can be credited for first having noted observational learning.
• B. F. Skinner: (1904–1990) An American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher known for his work on operant conditioning.

Learning is an adaptive function by which our nervous system changes in relation to stimuli in the environment, thus changing our behavioral responses and permitting us to function in our environment. The process occurs initially in our nervous system in response to environmental stimuli. Neural pathways can be strengthened, pruned, activated, or rerouted, all of which cause changes in our behavioral responses. 

Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors—they occur naturally and do not involve learning. In contrast, learning is a change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. The field of behavioral psychology focuses largely on measurable behaviors that are learned, rather than trying to understand internal states such as emotions and attitudes.

Types of Learning

There are three main types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning, in which associations are made between events that occur together. Observational learning is just as it sounds: learning by observing others.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a process by which we learn to associate events, or stimuli, that frequently happen together; as a result of this, we learn to anticipate events. Ivan Pavlov conducted a famous study involving dogs in which he trained (or conditioned) the dogs to associate the sound of a bell with the presence of a piece of meat. The conditioning is achieved when the sound of the bell on its own makes the dog salivate in anticipation for the meat.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is the learning process by which behaviors are reinforced or punished, thus strengthening or extinguishing a response. Edward Thorndike coined the term “law of effect,” in which behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. B. F. Skinner researched operant conditioning by conducting experiments with rats in what he called a “Skinner box.” Over time, the rats learned that stepping on the lever directly caused the release of food, demonstrating that behavior can be influenced by rewards or punishments. He differentiated between positive and negative reinforcement, and also explored the concept of extinction.

Observational Learning

Observational learning occurs through observing the behaviors of others and imitating those behaviors—even if there is no reinforcement at the time. Albert Bandura noticed that children often learn through imitating adults, and he tested his theory using his famous Bobo-doll experiment. Through this experiment, Bandura learned that children would attack the Bobo doll after viewing adults hitting the doll.