Acock, A. C. (2013). Discovering structural equation modeling using Stata. Stata Press Books.
Aldén, L., Hammarstedt, M., & Neuman, E. (2017). All about balance? A test of the Jack-of-all-Trades theory using military enlistment data. Labour Economics, 49, 1–13.
Article Google Scholar
Åstebro, T. (2016). Plenary session at the CoDE Conference, ZEW Mannheim, June 7, 2016.
Åstebro, T., & Hoos, F. (2021). Impact measurement based on repeated randomized control trials: The case of a training program to encourage social entrepreneurship. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 15(2), 254–278.
Article Google Scholar
Åstebro, T., & Thompson, P. (2011). Entrepreneurs, jacks of all trades or hobos? Research Policy, 40(5), 637–649.
Article Google Scholar
Backes-Gellner, U., & Moog, P. (2013). The disposition to become an entrepreneur and the jacks-of-all-trades in social and human. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 47, 55–72.
Article Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. (1963). Social learning and personality development. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Becker, G. S. (1964). Human capital theory. Columbia.
Bird, B. (1988). Implementing entrepreneurial ideas: The case for intention. Academy of Management Review, 13(3), 442–453.
Article Google Scholar
Bosma, N., Hessels, J., Schutjens, V., van Praag, M., & Verheul, I. (2012). Entrepreneurship and role models. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(2), 410–424.
Article Google Scholar
Bosma, N., Wennekers, S. & Amorós, J. E. (2012b). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2011 extended report: entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial employees across the globe. Global Entrepreneurship Research Association (GERA).
Brandstätter, H. (2011). Personality aspects of entrepreneurship: A look at five meta-analyses. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(3), 222–230.
Article Google Scholar
Brüne, N., & Lutz, E. (2020). The effect of entrepreneurship education in schools on entrepreneurial outcomes: A systematic review. Management Review Quarterly, 70(2), 275–305.
Article Google Scholar
Canavati, S., Libaers, D., Wang, T., Hooshangi, S., & Sarooghi, H. (2021). Relationship between human capital, new venture ideas, and opportunity beliefs: a meta-analysis. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 1-24., https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.1397
Chen, L.-W., & Thompson, P. (2016). Skill balance and entrepreneurship: Evidence from online career histories. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 40(2), 289–305.
Article Google Scholar
Chlosta, S., Patzelt, H., Klein, S. B., & Dormann, C. (2012). Parental role models and the decision to become self-employed: The moderating effect of personality. Small Business Economics, 38(1), 121–138.
Article Google Scholar
Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory and NEO Five Factor Inventory Professional Manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.
Cunha, F., & Heckman, J. (2007). The technology of skill formation. American Economic Review, 97(2), 31–47.
Article Google Scholar
Davidsson, P. (2006). Nascent entrepreneurship: Empirical studies and developments. Foundations and Trends in Entrepreneurship, 2(1), 1–79.
Article Google Scholar
Davidsson, P., & Gordon, S. R. (2012). Panel studies of new venture creation: A methods-focused review and suggestions for future research. Small Business Economics, 39(4), 853–876.
Article Google Scholar
Elert, N., Andersson, F. W., & Wennberg, K. (2015). The impact of entrepreneurship education in high school on long-term entrepreneurial performance. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 111, 209–223.
Article Google Scholar
Fairlie, R. W., Karlan, D., & Zinman, J. (2015). The effects of entrepreneurship training: Evidence from a randomized control experiment. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 7(2), 125–161.
Google Scholar
Falck, O., Heblich, S., & Luedemann, E. (2012). Identity and entrepreneurship: Do school peers shape entrepreneurial intentions? Small Business Economics, 39(1), 39–59.
Article Google Scholar
Gibson, D. E. (2004). Role models in career development: New directions for theory and research. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65(1), 134–156.
Article Google Scholar
Goethner, M., Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R. K., & Cantner, U. (2012). Scientists’ transition to academic entrepreneurship: Economic and psychological determinants. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(3), 628–641.
Article Google Scholar
Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate data analysis. Macmillan.
Google Scholar
Hartley, J. (1998). Learning and studying: A research perspective. Routledge.
Book Google Scholar
Hartung, P. J., Porfeli, E. J., & Vondracek, F. W. (2005). Child vocational development: A review and reconsideration. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66(3), 385–419.
Article Google Scholar
Heckman, J. J. (2006). Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science, 312(5782), 1900–1902.
Article Google Scholar
Holland, J. L., & Nichols, R. C. (1964). Prediction of academic and extra-curricular achievement in college. Journal of Educational Psychology, 55(1), 55–65.
Article Google Scholar
Hong, E., Milgram, R. M., & Whiston, S. C. (1993). Leisure activities in adolescents as a predictor of occupational choice in young adults: A longitudinal study. Journal of Career Development, 19(3), 221–229.
Article Google Scholar
Hsieh, C., Parker, S. C., & van Praag, M. (2017). Risk, balanced skills and entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 48(2), 287–302.
Article Google Scholar
Huber, L. R., Sloof, R., & Van Praag, M. (2014). Jacks-of-all-trades? IZA discussion paper.
Jayawarna, D., Jones, O., & Macpherson, A. (2015). Becoming an entrepreneur: the unexplored role of childhood and adolescent human capital. In: D. Rae, & C. Wang (Eds.), Entrepreneurial learning: new perspectives in research, education and practice (pp. 45–72). Routledge.
John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big Five trait taxonomy: history, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In: L. A. Pervin, & O. P. John, (Eds.), Handbook of personality: theory and research (pp. 102–138). Guilford Press.
Jordan, N. C., Kaplan, D., Ramineni, C., & Locunia, M. N. (2009). Early math matters: Kindergarten number competence and later mathematics outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 45(3), 850–867.
Article Google Scholar
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.
Google Scholar
Knight, F. (1921). Risk, uncertainty and profit. Houghton Mifflin.
Krieger, A., Block, J., & Stuetzer, M. (2018). Skill variety in entrepreneurship: A literature review and research directions. International Review of Entrepreneurship, 16(1), 29–62.
Google Scholar
Krueger, N. F. (2009). Entrepreneurial intentions are dead: long live entrepreneurial intentions. In A. L. Carsrud & M. Brännback (Eds.), Understanding the entrepreneurial mind: Opening the black box (pp. 51–72). Springer.
Krueger, N. F., Reilly, M. D., & Carsrud, A. L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 15(5–6), 411–432.
Article Google Scholar
Kuratko, D. F. (2005). The emergence of entrepreneurship education: Development, trends, and challenges. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 29(5), 577–598.
Article Google Scholar
Lazear, E. P. (2005). Entrepreneurship. Journal of Labor Economics, 23(4), 649–680.
Article Google Scholar
Lechmann, D., & Schnabel, C. (2014). Are the self-employed really jacks-of-all-trades? Testing the assumptions and implications of Lazear’s theory of entrepreneurship with German data. Small Business Economics, 42(1), 59–76.
Article Google Scholar
Lee, L., Wong, P. K., Foo, M. D., & Leung, A. (2011). Entrepreneurial intentions: The influence of organizational and individual factors. Journal of Business Venturing, 26(1), 124–136.
Article Google Scholar
Lerner, R. M., & Damon, W. (2012). Entrepreneurship in adolescence: A relational developmental systems approach. International Journal of Developmental Science, 6(3–4), 117–126.
Article Google Scholar
Lucas, R. E. (1978). On the size distribution of business firm. Bell Journal of Economics, 9(2), 508–523.
Article Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., Desjardins, C. D., McCormick, C. M., Sally, I., Kuo, C., & Long, J. D. (2010). The significance of childhood competence and problems for adult success in work a developmental cascade analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 22(3), 679–694.
Article Google Scholar
Milgram, R., & Hong, E. (1999). Multipotential abilities and vocational interests in gifted adolescents: Fact or fiction ? International Journal of Psychology, 34(2), 81–93.
Article Google Scholar
Munson, W. W., & Savickas, M. L. (1998). Relation between leisure and career development of college students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 53(2), 243–253.
Article Google Scholar
Nicolaou, N., & Shane, S. (2009). Can genetic factors influence the likelihood of engaging in entrepreneurial activity? Journal of Business Venturing, 24(1), 1–22.
Article Google Scholar
Oberschachtsiek, D. (2012). The experience of the founder and self-employment duration: A comparative advantage approach. Small Business Economics, 39(1), 1–17.
Article Google Scholar
Obschonka, M. (2016). Adolescent pathways to entrepreneurship. Child Development Perspectives, 10(3), 196–201.
Article Google Scholar
Obschonka, M., Hakkarainen, K., Lonka, K., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2017). Entrepreneurship as a twenty-first century skill: Entrepreneurial alertness and intention in the transition to adulthood. Small Business Economics, 48(3), 487–501.
Article Google Scholar
Obschonka, M., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2012). Entrepreneurship from a developmental science perspective. Editorial for the Special Issue “Entrepreneurial development: person and context.” International Journal of Developmental Science, 6(3), 107–115.
Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R. K., & Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2010). Entrepreneurial intention as developmental outcome. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77(1), 63–72.
Article Google Scholar
Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R. K., & Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2011). Successful entrepreneurship as developmental outcome. European Psychologist, 16(3), 174–186.
Article Google Scholar
Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R. K., & Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2012). Explaining entrepreneurial behavior: Dispositional personality traits, growth of personal entrepreneurial resources, and business idea generation. Career Development Quarterly, 60(2), 178–190.
Article Google Scholar
Obschonka, M., & Stuetzer, M. (2017). Integrating psychological approaches to entrepreneurship: The Entrepreneurial Personality System (EPS). Small Business Economics, 49(1), 203–231.
Article Google Scholar
Oosterbeek, H., van Praag, M., & Ijsselstein, A. (2008). The impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurship competencies and intentions: An evaluation of the Junior Achievement Student Mini-Company Program. European Economic Review, 54(3), 442–454.
Article Google Scholar
Parker, S. C. (2009). Why do small firms produce the entrepreneurs? The Journal of Socio-Economics, 38(3), 484–494.
Article Google Scholar
Patel, P. C., & Ganzach, Y. (2019). Returns to balance in cognitive skills for the self-employed: Evidence from 18 countries. Small Business Economics, 52(1), 89–109.
Article Google Scholar
Peterman, N. E., & Kennedy, J. (2003). Enterprise education: Influencing students’ perceptions of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 28(2), 129–144.
Article Google Scholar
Ranta, M., Dietrich, J., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2013). Career and romantic relationship goals and concerns during emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 2(1), 17–26.
Article Google Scholar
Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. E., & Viechtbauer, W. (2006). Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 1–25.
Article Google Scholar
Rosendahl Huber, L., Sloof, R., van Praag, M., & Parker, S. C. (2020). Diverse cognitive skills and team performance: A field experiment based on an entrepreneurship education program. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 177, 569–588.
Article Google Scholar
Rosenthal, T. L., & Bandura, A. (1978). Psychological modelling: theory and practice. In S. L. Garfield, & A. E. Bergin (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behaviour change: an empirical analysis (pp. 621–658). Wiley.
Rosti, L., & Chelli, F. (2005). Gender discrimination, entrepreneurial talent and self-employment. Small Business Economics, 24(2), 131–142.
Article Google Scholar
Rotter, J. B., Chance, J. E., & Phares, E. J. (1972). Applications of a social learning theory of personality. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Rutter, M. (2006). Genes and behavior: nature–nurture interplay explained. Blackwell Publishing.
Salmela-Aro, K. (2015). Finnish educational transition (FinEdu) studies. Retrieved from https://www.jyu.fi/ytk/laitokset/psykologia/en/old-research/programsand-projects/finedu. Accessed 7.4.2017.
Scarr, S., & McCartney, K. (1983). How people make their own environments: a theory of genotype → environment effects. Child Development, 424–435.
Scherer, R. F., Adams, J. S., Carley, S. S., & Wiebe, F. A. (1989). Role model performance effects on development of entrepreneurial career preference. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 13(3), 53–71.
Article Google Scholar
Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2004). Pathways to successful entrepreneurship: Parenting, personality, early entrepreneurial competence, and interests. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65(3), 498–518.
Article Google Scholar
Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2007). The long way to entrepreneurship: personality, parenting, early interests, and competencies as precursors for entrepreneurial activity among the “Termites.” In R. K. Silbereisen & R. M. Lerner (Eds). Approaches to positive youth development (pp. 205–224). Sage.
Schmitt-Rodermund, E., & Vondracek, F. W. (1999). Breadth of interests, exploration, and identity development in adolescence. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 55(3), 298–317.
Article Google Scholar
Schoon, I. (2001). Teenage job aspirations and career attainment in adulthood: A 17-year follow-up study of teenagers who aspired to become scientists, health professionals, or engineers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25(2), 124–132.
Article Google Scholar
Schoon, I., & Duckworth, K. (2012). Who becomes an entrepreneur?: Early life experiences as predictors of entrepreneurship. Developmental Psychology, 48(6), 1719–1726.
Article Google Scholar
Schröder, E., & Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2006). Crystallizing enterprising interests among adolescents through a career development program: The role of personality and family background. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69(3), 494–509.
Article Google Scholar
Schulenberg, J. E., Vondracek, F. W., & Crouter, A. C. (1984). The influence of the family on vocational development. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46(1), 129–143.
Article Google Scholar
Schumpeter, J.A. (1934). The theory of economic development. Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1911 in German: Die Theorie der Wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung. Duncker & Humblot).
Silva, O. (2007). The Jack-of-All-Trades entrepreneur: Innate talent or acquired skill? Economics Letters, 97(2), 118–123.
Article Google Scholar
StataCorp. (2011). Stata statistical software: Release 12. StataCorp LP.
Stuetzer, M., Obschonka, M., Davidsson, P., & Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2013). Where do entrepreneurial skills come from? Applied Economics Letters, 20(12), 1183–1186.
Article Google Scholar
Stuetzer, M., Obschonka, M., & Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2013). Balanced skills among nascent entrepreneurs. Small Business Economics, 41(1), 93–114.
Article Google Scholar
Super, D. E. (1984). Leisure: What it is and might be. Journal of Career Development, 11(1), 71–80.
Article Google Scholar
Tobias, S. (1994). Interest, prior knowledge, and learning. Review of Educational Research, 64(1), 37–54.
Article Google Scholar
Tuominen-Soini, H., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2014). Schoolwork engagement and burnout among Finnish high school students and young adults: Profiles, progressions, and educational outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 50(3), 649–662.
Article Google Scholar
Tuominen-Soini, H., Salmela-Aro, K., & Niemivirta, M. (2011). Stability and change in achievement goal orientations: A person-centered approach. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(2), 82–100.
Article Google Scholar
Unger, J. M., Rauch, A., Frese, M., & Rosenbusch, N. (2011). Human capital and entrepreneurial success: A meta-analytical review. Journal of Business Venturing, 26(3), 341–358.
Article Google Scholar
Wagner, J. (2006). Are nascent entrepreneurs “Jacks-of-all-trades”? A test of Lazear’s theory of entrepreneurship with German data. Applied Economics, 38(20), 2415–2419.
Article Google Scholar
Xiao, Y., Dowejko, M. K., Au, K., & Hsu, A. J. C. (2020). “Jack-of-all-trades” with passion: Keener to pursue startup in a team? Journal of Small Business Management, 58(4), 806–833.
Article Google Scholar
Zhao, H., & Seibert, S. E. (2006). The big five personality dimensions and entrepreneurial status: A meta-analytical review. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 259–271.
Article Google Scholar
Page 2
From: The growth of entrepreneurial human capital: origins and development of skill variety
Variables/scale/source
Description/Sample item
Mean (SD)
Cronbach’s alpha
Entrepreneurial intentions (age 26) (Obschonka et al., 2010)
2.15 (1.41)
.89
1. Item 1 (scale = 1 to 7)
In the foreseeable future, do you intend to found a new business?
2.28 (1.67)
2. Item 2 (scale = 1 to 7)
I have recently sought information about the ways and means of founding a new business
1.92 (1.65)
3. Item 3 (scale = 1 to 6)
In your opinion, how high is the probability that, in the foreseeable future, you will found a new business?
2.25 (1.28)
Skill variety (age 26) (scale = 0 to 6)
(Stuetzer et al., 2013b)
Count of functional areas in which person has had educational/work experience. Six possible categories: 1 = general management; 2 = sales, marketing, customer service; 3 = finance, accounting; 4 = technical, research, science, engineering; 5 = manufacturing, operations; 6 = administration, human resource management
1. Education
2.55 (1.68)
2. Work
2.16 (1.51)
Early variety orientation (age 16)
For 1) and 2): count of dummy variables of importance of/variety in school subjects (scale = 1 to 7). Five school subjects: 1 = mother tongue; 2 = foreign language; 3 = science; 4 = humanistic and social sciences; 5 = arts and handwork. Dummy: 1 = rating greater than 3; 0 = otherwise. Example items: “I consider foreign languages to be an important school subject”; “I am interested in foreign languages as a school subject”
1. Variety importance of school subjects (scale = 0 to 4)
3.57 (.66)
2. Variety interest in school subjects (scale = 0 to 4)
3.26 (.96)
3. Quantity of hobbies (scale = 1 to 7)
I have many hobbies (1 = Does not fit me at all, 7 = Fits me completely)
4.05 (1.84)
Entrepreneurial personality profile (age 22) (scale = 1 to 5)
(John & Srivastava, 1999)
1. Extraversion (3 items)
I am someone that is talkative
3.43 (.72)
.59
2. Conscientiousness (3 items)
I am someone that does a thorough job
3.68 (.63)
.59
3. Openness (3 items)
I am someone that is curious about many different things
3.68 (.73)
.64
4. Agreeableness (3 items)
I am someone that is helpful and unselfish with others
3.65 (.66)
.52
5. Neuroticism (3 items)
I am someone that is depressed, blue
2.79 (.78)
.63
Definition of entrepreneurial reference type scoring high (5) in extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness, and low (0) in agreeableness and neuroticism. Index for match with reference calculated by summing squared difference between personal and reference score over five personality traits and reversing algebraic sign. The higher the result, the higher the personality profile fit
− 18.62 (6.15)
n.a
Entrepreneurial parents (age 16)
Dummy: 1 = one/both parents self-employed, worker on own account/liberal profession; 0 = otherwise