What could have originally caused the existence of two forms of the same species of moth

  • Adams D. The salmon of doubt. London: Macmillan; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bishop JA. An experimental study of the cline of industrial melanism in Biston betularia (L.) (Lepidoptera) between urban Liverpool and rural North Wales. J Anim Ecol. 1972;41:209–43. doi:10.2307/3513.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop JA, Cook LM, Muggleton J. The response of two species of moths to industrialization in northwest England. I. Polymorphism for melanism. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1978a;281:489–515. doi:10.1098/rstb.1978.0006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop JA, Cook LM, Muggleton J. The response of two species of moths to industrialization in northwest England. II. Relative fitness of morphs and population size. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1978b;281:517–42. doi:10.1098/rstb.1978.0007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowater W. Heredity of melanism in Lepidoptera. J Genet. 1914;3:299–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brakefield PM. Industrial melanism: do we have the answers? Trends Ecol Evol. 1987;2:117–22. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(87)90051-6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brakefield PM. A decline of melanism in the peppered moth, Biston betularia in The Netherlands. Biol J Linn Soc Lond. 1990;39:327–34. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1990.tb00520.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brakefield PM, Liebert TG. The reliability of estimates of migration in the peppered moth Biston betularia and some implications for selection–migration models. Biol J Linn Soc Lond. 1990;39:335–42. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1990.tb00521.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brakefield PM, Liebert TG. Evolutionary dynamics of declining melanism in the peppered moth in The Netherlands. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2000;267:1953–7. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1235.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke CA, Sheppard PM. Genetic control of the melanic form insularia of the moth Biston betularia L. Nature. 1964;202:215–6. doi:10.1038/202215a0.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke CA, Mani GS, Wynne G. Evolution in reverse: clean air and the peppered moth. Biol J Linn Soc Lond. 1985;26:189–99. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1985.tb01555.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook LM. Changing views on melanic moths. J Linn Soc. 2000;69:431–41. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2000.tb01215.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook LM. The rise and fall of the carbonaria form of the peppered moth. Q Rev Biol. 2003;78:399–417. doi:10.1086/378925.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cook LM, Askew RR, Bishop JA. Increasing frequency of the typical form of the peppered moth in Manchester. Nature. 1970;227:1155. doi:10.1038/2271155a0.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coyne JA. Not black and white. Nature. 1998;396:35–6. doi:10.1038/23856.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Edleston RS. No title (first carbonaria melanic of moth Biston betularia). Entomologist. 1864;2:150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford EB. Ecological genetics. London: Methuen; 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frack D. Peppered moths—in black and white. Posting to ‘Anticreation List’, , March 30, 1999.

  • Grant BS. Sour grapes of wrath. Science. 2002;297:940–1. doi:10.1126/science.1073593.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grant BS, Owen DF, Clarke CA. Decline of melanic moths. Nature. 1995;373:565. doi:10.1038/373565a0.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grant BS, Owen DF, Clarke CA. Parallel rise and fall of melanic peppered moths in America and Britain. J Hered. 1996;87:351–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hooper J. Of moths and men: intrigue, tragedy & the peppered moth. London: Fourth Estate; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howlett RJ, Majerus MEN. The understanding of industrial melanism in the peppered moth (Biston betularia) (Lepidoptera: Geometridae). Biol J Linn Soc Lond. 1987;30:31–44. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1987.tb00286.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kettlewell HBD. Selection experiments on industrial melanism in the Lepidoptera. Heredity. 1955;9:323–42. doi:10.1038/hdy.1955.36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kettlewell HBD. Further selection experiments on industrial melanism in the Lepidoptera. Heredity. 1956;10:287–301. doi:10.1038/hdy.1956.28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kettlewell HBD. A survey of the frequencies of Biston betularia (L.) (Lepidoptera) and its melanic forms in Great Britain. Heredity. 1958a;12:51–72. doi:10.1038/hdy.1958.4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kettlewell HBD. The importance of the micro-environment to evolutionary trends in the Lepidoptera. Entomologist. 1958b;91:214–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kettlewell HBD. The evolution of melanism. Oxford: Clarendon; 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohn M. A reason for everything: natural selection and the English imagination. London: Faber and Faber; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lees DR. Genetic control of the melanic form insularia of the peppered moth Biston betularia L. Nature. 1968;220:1249–50. doi:10.1038/2201249a0.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lees DR. Industrial melanism: genetic adaptation of animals to air pollution. In: Bishop JA, Cook LM, editors. Genetic consequences of man made change. London: Academic; 1981. p. 129–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lees DR, Creed ER. Industrial melanism in Biston betularia: the role of selective predation. J Anim Ecol. 1975;44:67–83. doi:10.2307/3852.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liebert TG, Brakefield PM. Behavioural studies on the peppered moth Biston betularia and a discussion of the role of pollution and epiphytes in industrial melanism. Biol J Linn Soc Lond. 1987;31:129–50. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1987.tb01985.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacArthur RH, Connell JH. The biology of populations. New York and London: Wiley; 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • Majerus MEN. Melanism: evolution in action. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  • Majerus MEN. The peppered moth: decline of a Darwinian disciple. In: Fellowes MDE, Holloway GJ, Rolff J, editors. Insect evolutionary ecology. Wallingford, UK: CABI; 2005. p. 367–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Majerus MEN. The peppered moth: the proof of Darwinian evolution. Available at http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/Research/Majerus/Swedentalk220807.pdf, 2007.

  • Majerus MEN. Non-morph specific predation of peppered moths (Biston betularia) by bats. Ecol Entomol. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120122275/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0, 2008.

  • Mallett J. The peppered moth: a black and white story after all. Genet Soc News. 2004;50:34–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mani GS, Majerus MEN. Peppered moth revisited: analysis of recent decreases in melanic frequency and predictions for the future. Biol J Linn Soc Lond. 1993;48:157–65. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1993.tb00884.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matthews R. Scientists pick holes in Darwin moth theory. The Sunday Telegraph, March 14, 1999.

  • Mikkola K. Resting site selection of Oliga and Biston moths (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae and Geometridae). Acta Entomol Fenn. 1979;45:81–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mikkola K. On the selective force acting in the industrial melanism of Biston and Oliga moths (Lepidoptera: Geometridae and Noctuidae). Biol J Linn Soc Lond. 1984;21:409–21. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1984.tb01602.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raeburn P. The moth that failed. The New York Times, July 25 section 7, p. 3, 2002.

  • Rudd S. The piltdown moth. http://www.bible.ca/tracks/textbook-fraud-pepper-moth-biston-betularia.htm, 2001.

  • Rudge DW. The role of photographs and films in Kettlewell’s popularizations of the phenomenon of industrial melanism. Sci Educ. 2003;12:261–87. doi:10.1023/A:1024031432066.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rudge DW. Using the history of research on industrial melanism to help students better appreciate the nature of science. In Proceedings of the Seventh International Teaching Group Meeting Winnipeg 761–772 (available through http://ihpst.arts.unsw.edu.au/index.html), 2004.

  • Rudge DW. Did Kettlewell commit fraud? Re-examining the evidence. Public Underst Sci. 2005;14:249–68. doi:10.1177/0963662505052890.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scoble MJ. The Lepidoptera: form, function and diversity. London: British Museum (Natural History); 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith PD. Darwinism in a flutter: did a moth show evolution in action? The Guardian, May 11, 2002.

  • Steward RC. Industrial and non-industrial melanism in the peppered moth Biston betularia (L.). Ecol Entomol. 1977;2:231–43. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1977.tb00886.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tutt JW. British moths. London George: Routledge; 1896.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wade N. Staple of evolutionary history may not be a textbook case. The New York Times, June 18 section F, p. 3, 2002.

  • Wells J. Second thoughts about peppered moths: this classical story of evolution by natural selection needs revising. The True Origin Archive, http://trueorigin.org/pepmoth1.htm, 2001.

  • Wells J. Moth-eaten statistics: a reply to Kenneth R. Miller. Discovery Institute: Centre for Renewal of Science and Culture—Article Database, http://www.discovery.org/viewDB/index.php3?command=view&id=1147&program=CRSC, 2002.

  • Whittle PDJ, Clarke CA, Sheppard PM, Bishop JA. Further studies on the industrial melanic moth Biston betularia (L.) in the northwest of the British Isles. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1976;194:467–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoon CK. Parallel plots in classic of evolution. New York Times: Science Times, November 12, pp C1, C7; 1996.

  • Young M, Musgrave I. Moonshine: why the peppered moth remains an icon of evolution. Skeptical Inquirer March–April 23–28, 2005.


Page 2

The typica form of the peppered moth