The COVID-19 crisis has exposed the vulnerabilities of individuals, societies and economies, calling for a rethink of how economic and social activities are organised. The crisis calls for strong responses based on solidarity, co-operation and responsibility. Social economy organisations (associations, co-operatives, mutual organisations, foundations and social enterprises), whose business models are built around such principles can help reshaping the post-crisis economies and societies. This note presents the role the social economy and its actors have played in the COVID-19 crisis. It further explains the current challenges faced by the social economy and highlights selected policy instruments and recommendations to support social economy actors in their efforts to “repair” and “transform” societies. Social economy organisations put social and environmental concerns at the heart of their business model, prioritising social impact over profit maximisation. They are driven by a mission of serving the common good, protecting the general interest1 and increasing individual and community welfare by organising their activity in a different way (Figure 1). Social economy business models are unique in a number of ways:
While sharing common principles and practices, social economy organisations show a great diversity in terms of legal forms, size, outreach and sectors (Figure 2). The field brings together not-for-profit and for-profit entities, the former focusing more on the social component while the latter are more economic-oriented. A majority of social economy actors are small and medium-sized entities, but the field also counts numerous examples of large entities and groups of social economy organisations able to compete with multinationals in some cases. Social economy organisations are active in a wide range of sectors. While traditionally they have been involved in the provision of social services and healthcare, social economy organisations are present throughout the economy. The social economy is a significant economic and social actor in its own right, and one that has proven resilient in past crises. In the EU, there are 2.8 million social economy entities, accounting for, on average, 6.3% of EU employment (see Box 1 for further figures on social economy). The social economy was resilient in economic downturns following the Global Financial Crisis in 2008. For example, in countries such as Italy and Belgium, employment in the public and private sectors decreased sharply during the period 2008-2010 just after the crisis, while employment in social enterprises actually grew (11.5% growth in Belgium and 20.1% growth in Italian social co-operatives) (European Union, 2016[2]). In France, between 2000 and 2014, employment in the social economy registered significant and continuous growth (25%), while employment growth in the private sector was much lower (6%) (R&S, 2015[3]). The social economy contributes to social and economic resilience2 given the nature of its activity and the business models that are more equipped to resist shocks. First, the activities and services that a range of social economy organisations provide – for example in the health sector, social services and work integration – mitigate the direct impacts of the crisis, especially for the most vulnerable groups, helping society to cope with the crisis. Second, some specific features of the social economy business models increase a social economy organisation’s ability to overcome difficulties during a crisis, such as the inclusive and participatory governance structures, the embeddedness in local communities and economies, and the mobilisation of a range of mixed resources. These elements have been extensively discussed and analysed in several reports published after the Global Financial Crisis in 2008 (see for example (CIRIEC, 2012[4]) (Birchall and Ketilson, 2009[5])). This capacity to increase economic and social resilience is linked to the two main roles that the social economy plays in the economic system: repair and transform (Mertens, 2020[9]). First, it may address social needs that are often not covered by the market economy and also complement public action. For example, in the area of work integration, the social economy creates employment opportunities for individuals who are excluded from the labour market. Second, the social economy designs, experiments and implements innovative ways to organise economic activity in a more inclusive and sustainable way, resulting in responsible practices which transform the economic system. For example, identifying and developing niche opportunities, and consequently unlocking new sectors that were subsequently taken up by traditional enterprises. While these functions have been particularly visible during the current crisis, there is a potential for the social economy to play a stronger transformational role during the recovery to help communities “build back better”. Box 2 presents an example of a social economy initiative illustrating how social economy organisations rely on their unique features to provide rapid solutions during times of crisis. What is particularly interesting about the creation of this local production line of masks is that it initially relied on volunteers to sew the masks but this should soon transition into an economically viable project. It is envisaged that the work integration social enterprise partner will continue to be involved in the production of masks, while the initiative will also aim to create employment opportunities for individuals who lost their income due to the crisis. Historically, during periods of crises, there is a rise in the value placed on co-operation and solidarity. In recent public health epidemics including the current one, financial crises including the 2007-2008 financial crisis, and natural disasters such as the 2004 tsunami, co-operatives and wider social economy organisations were key in helping to reconstruct their community. Social economy organisations are particularly successful in reaching out to the vulnerable groups and re-integrating them into the society, thus filling some of the voids left by the state and the market (see Box 3). This is because they are locally anchored and their core purpose is socially driven. The social economy is also seen as favouring preventive approaches to save future costs or explicitly reduce the negative externalities4 of economic activities. Such costs savings often concern public expenses, for example in healthcare (by preventing disease or injury) or unemployment benefits (through the action of work integration social enterprises). The social economy permits a better allocation of resources in the provision of some services and goods. This is one of the reasons why regional development approaches and strategies are increasingly leveraging the potential of the social economy (OECD, 2020[16]). Because of the specific features of social economy business models (Figure 1), the social economy produces additional positive effects on public expenses (e.g. savings of costs), on individuals (e.g. empowerment), on territories (e.g. co-operation in local ecosystems) and on society (e.g. social cohesion). These mitigating and prevention functions make the social economy a natural and trusted partner of government and civil society more generally. They collaborate to complement public action in specific areas (health, social services, education, fight against poverty, work integration) (Noya and Clarence, 2007[11]) (Mendell, 2014[17]) (OECD, 2013[18]). This partnership is especially appreciated during times of crisis, wars or epidemics, because the social economy can act rapidly, develop partnerships in an effective manner though their networks, and act as a trusted partner. The social economy reacted quickly to address the urgent social needs arising from the COVID-19 crisis, helping mitigate crisis effects. A recent survey of social enterprises in the United Kingdom has confirmed that, despite intense difficulties to keep operating for many social enterprises, 96% of respondents said that they are actively supporting their community, staff or beneficiaries to deal with COVID-19 on top of managing their social enterprise. The main actions of the social economy across OECD countries have included:
Over the last two decades, the social economy has intensified its efforts to “transform” society by implementing innovative and value-driven economic practices and models that are built around a social purpose or citizen-based. Moreover, the social economy has created new alliances involving citizens, policy makers, SMEs, universities and other stakeholders, focussed on socially innovative projects that support local economies and communities. Social economy organisations have identified and developed niche opportunities, and consequently have unlocked new sectors that were subsequently taken up by traditional enterprises. Social economy organisations have pioneered alternative ways that enterprises create, capture and share value, as well as develop collaborative, circular and inclusive practices and models. By successfully demonstrating these alternative ways of conducting economic activities, social economy organisations inspire other economic actors to act differently, “mainstreaming” these practices. Examples of this include organic and local food or fair trade products, which are now found in mainstream supermarkets. Social economy organisations can help transform society and the economy by:
Interest in the social economy has increased in recent decades, spurred by changes in consumer habits that pay more attention to the origin and manufacturing process, and demand products which are produced sustainably and ethically. Indeed, some citizens are questioning all their economic choices, not only as a consumer but also as a saver, worker, entrepreneur or volunteer (Mertens, 2020[9]). The social economy provides an opportunity to make alternative economic choices, be actively involved in the economic sphere and help reshape societies. Inspiring social economy initiatives that emerged during the COVID-19 crisis confirm the capacity of social economy organisations to adopt successful alternative business models, as well as cultivate the common good, social innovation and collaboration. Social economy actors were able to rapidly mobilise local stakeholders to co-design place-based and socially innovative solutions, relying on – or sometimes developing – local value chains (see Box 2). In France, in the rural area of Auberive-Vingeanne-Montsaugeonnais, one challenge was to implement solidarity channels for the most vulnerable and isolated individuals. Social economy organisations have been playing a significant role in providing healthcare, food supply and information services for these vulnerable groups, and identifying at-risk individuals. Social economy organisations have collaborated closely with local authorities, creating solutions, sharing experiences and information, demonstrating the value of these organisations’ local knowledge and networks (particularly important in isolated regions), and showing the positive results of dialogue and co-development of solutions at the local level. The social economy can benefit societies both during and after the COVID-19 crisis in four spheres:
The social economy can reshape the post-crisis economic and social systems by inspiring socially and environmentally responsible practices among economic actors and by scaling social economy business models. Scaling strategies for social economy actors, such as co-operatives and social enterprises, increase social impact and include replicating activities in new geographical areas to reach new target populations, diversifying activities, and empowering individuals and groups to actively take part in social innovation processes. Similar to traditional large and small enterprises, many social economy actors have been affected by the COVID-19 crisis and are having difficulty operating during this period. However, unlike many SMEs, social economy organisations often deliver essential services and help prevent future negative impacts of the crisis, working with the most deprived communities and employing those often furthest from the traditional labour market, notably disadvantaged and vulnerable groups. The risk of the COVID-19 crisis is that many of the social economy actors who used all their resources in the emergency response, might not be able to continue to operate in the future due to short-term liquidity issues. As shown in various surveys, the majority of social economy organisations indicate that their situation will worsen without further support from the government. Differentiation should be made between social economy organisations whose primary source of income is based on commercial revenues (sales of services or goods) and those more reliant on public grants. The latter group is least likely to report high expected drops in turnover over the coming year. Like firms in general, certain types of social economy organisations are experiencing notable drops in activity. A survey in Korea indicates that social enterprises were expecting a worsening of their situation due to reduced cash flows (85.1% of respondents), a drop in sales (83.7%) and disruptions with personnel management (49.5%) (International Labour Organisation (ILO), 2020[25]). In France, a recent study from the work integration enterprise association reported that 95% of their economic activity was affected by the COVID-19 crisis and that work integration social enterprises would lose around 27% of their projected revenues for 2020 (Ernst and Young, 2020[26]). In the New Aquitaine Region of France, around 75% of social economy organisations have reduced their activity and 45% report a turnover loss of at least 50% in March and April 2020. In the same region, 70% of social economy organisations mentioned that the COVID-19 crisis endangers their viability, and that for one in every three organisations, it happened immediately (Duforestel, 2020[27]). In Belgium, the crisis has hit the sector of work integration social enterprises hard, 85% of the workplaces have seen their activity reduced to 40% of normal capacity or lower, and 21% with no capacity whatsoever (EASPD (European Association of Service Providers with Persons with Disabilities), 2020[28]). In the United Kingdom, 59% of social enterprises that responded, expected demand for their business to decrease due to COVID-19, with 36% expecting an increase (Social enterprise UK (SEUK), 2020[19]). The economic impact of the COVID-19 crisis on social economy organisations varies greatly depending on a number of factors including the sector of activity, as well as the organisation’s size, age, operational mode and financial structure. This diversity calls for differentiated support measures and creates a real challenge for policy makers to find relevant instruments. For example, survey data indicates that, in the New Aquitaine Region of France, social economy organisations younger than five years and having fewer than 10 employees are most affected by the crisis, while large social economy organisations cope better with the crisis (Duforestel, 2020[27]). The COVID-19 outbreak had a substantial impact on social economy actors, pushing them to adjust the way they operate to ensure cash flow, and to identify new opportunities (such as production of face masks) to stay afloat. Many social economy organisations had to revisit their business/operating models and for some, close down some of their activities in order to ensure the financial sustainability of their organisations. Some of the reasons why social economy actors were more impacted than firms in general by this crisis in particular given its scale and nature are:
Policy makers are paying increasing attention to the social economy and how to support it, especially during the COVID-19 crisis when its contribution has been essential. Governments rapidly put in place measures for all economic players, including social economy organisations, to respond to the immediate economic impacts of the crisis. However the specific measures adopted to support small and medium enterprises (SMEs) (see OECD policy note Coronavirus (COVID-19): SME Policy Responses (OECD, 2020[29])) sometimes overlooked social economy actors, despite the fact that some of these actors have the relevant organisational and financial models to act as SMEs. Many countries have addressed the ineligibility of social economy organisations to specific measures by enabling their access. A number of relevant measures applied by local authorities, such as the provision of information in the early days of the pandemic, has also been detailed in the OECD note From Pandemic to Recovery: Local Employment and Economic Development (OECD, 2020[30]). Specific policy measures were needed to address the needs of social economy actors and support them in providing rapid and place-based solutions to overcome the crisis. Table 1 provides a summary of the main measures applicable to social economy organisations since the COVID-19 crisis began. The initial response in the first few weeks was focused on the survival and strengthening of such organisations. More recently, measures have focussed on supporting further development of the social economy in its transforming role. During the first few weeks of the crisis, government efforts focused on ensuring the survival of social economy organisations and developing new partnerships crucial for the delivery of basic services. Most countries applied an approach involving one or more of the following elements:
Measures and instruments in the consolidation phase promote organisational changes and offer assistance to adjust operations to the new realties. This phase is also characterised by the need to develop new skillsets (for example digital skills/ trainings) to be able to operate in the changed environment with new sanitary and socio-economic measures. This is accompanied by the need for closer collaboration between different levels of government to ensure consistency and the need to develop partnerships with social economy organisations. In order to address these issues, governments are implementing the following initiatives to support social economy organisations:
One of the assets of the social economy is its potential to bring systemic change. Social economy actors are close to grassroots communities and are among the first to spot changes in society, including behavioural changes. Social economy actors have proven their ability to spot early trends such as the demand for fair trade products as well as organic and green products or support for waste recycling. They have worked to mainstream these concepts over time. The COVID-19 crisis provides an opportunity to scale-up the social economy so it can play a greater role in transforming societies. Such actions would contribute to fulfilling the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). There is also a high expectation by citizens that the recovery should be fairer and greener compared to the recovery following the 2008 Global Financial Crisis, but it would require better collaboration and changing priorities. Social economy actors and policy makers will need to work together with other stakeholders (including academia, citizen-based organisations and private sector organisations) to bring about this transformation. This is especially important for the development of a strong local network, where local companies and the social economy could work together by experimenting and implementing new responsible practices. To help the social economy play its transformational role, policy makers could consider the following policy options:
The COVID-19 pandemic has driven numerous changes to economic activities and the way societies function, bringing the role of the social economy to the fore. Addressing these challenges has prompted policy makers to rethink how to better protect citizens and deliver necessary services in a more efficient manner. The crisis accelerated the emergence and increased visibility of inspiring social economy and social innovation initiatives, showcasing their positive contributions in empowering people, reinforcing place-based dynamics and reshaping enterprises and territories. Social economy organisations have proven to be an important element in mitigating the effects of the pandemic. They not only support governments by addressing sanitary issues related to COVID-19, they are also serving as a trusted partner ensuring a better allocation of resources in the provision of some goods and services sorely needed to address immediate concerns. The current situation offers momentum to take bold, courageous decisions to build a more sustainable and inclusive future. The COVID-19 crisis calls for a rethinking of the balance of the objectives of efficiency and resilience in different areas of economic and social systems. Post-crisis efforts can be turned into an opportunity to improve people’s lives and stimulate innovation. This is where social economy organisations can release their full potential. More precisely, the social economy can reinforce the transition towards more resilient societies through its principles (solidarity, co-operation, social impact) and practices. The social economy can inspire responsible practices among mainstream economic players, showing that it is possible to reconcile economic objectives with environmental and social requirements. The social economy also expands collective social innovation and sustains new forms of partnerships, gathering diverse actors with their respective expertise and perspectives on current challenges. The social economy provides a credible and value-driven path to transition towards more inclusive, sustainable and resilient systems in a post COVID-19 world. A mix of policy measures is needed to help social economy organisations survive in the short term and help shape our societies in a more sustainable and inclusive way for the future. Governments can use this opportunity to develop a shared vision of their future to “build back better”, and social economy actors should have a seat at the table. An action plan to implement that vision would help set a roadmap to which social economy organisations can actively contribute. Policies which promote social innovation and co-operation can assist social economy innovations to scale up impact. To achieve this, social economy organisations will require continued and diversified financial resources, and support to professionalise as well as become digitally savvy in exploiting relevant tools (open source, co-operative platforms). Finally, the development of shared data and information on impact will help keep track of this progress and redirect efforts towards areas with the most fruitful results. [10] Ben-Ner, A. (2006), For-profit, state, and non-profit: how to cut the pie among three sectors, Edward Elgar. [5] Birchall, J. and L. Ketilson (2009), Resilience of the Cooperative Business Model in Times of Crisis, International Labour Organization. [12] Borzaga, C. and E. Tortia (2007), Chapter 1. Social Economy Organisations in the Theory of the Firm, OECD. [6] CIRIEC (2017), Recent evolutions of the Social Economy in the European Union, European Economic and Social Committee, European Union, http://www.ciriec.uliege.be/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/RecentEvolutionsSEinEU_Study2017.pdf. [4] CIRIEC (2012), The Social Economy in the European Union, European Economic and Social Committee (EESC), http://www.ciriec.uliege.be/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/EESC_CIRIECReport2012_EN.pdf. [21] de Woot, P. (2013), Repenser l’entreprise, Académie royale de Belgique. [27] Duforestel, P. (2020), Défis et stratégies de soutien à l’ESS en période de crise du COVID-19. Région Nouvelle-Aquitaine. [28] EASPD (European Association of Service Providers with Persons with Disabilities) (2020), COVID-19: how social enterprises are fighting back!, https://www.easpd.eu/en/content/covid-19-how-social-enterprises-are-fighting-back. [38] Ellen Macarthur Foundation (n.d.), What is the circular economy?, https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/circular-economy/what-is-the-circular-economy (accessed on 2020). [26] Ernst and Young (2020), Etude de l’impact du Covid-19 sur les entreprises d’insertion et perspectives de relance du secteur. [33] European Commission (n.d.), European Commission, https://ec.europa.eu/info/topics/single-market/services-general-interest_en (accessed on 2020). [2] European Union (2016), Social Enterprises and their Eco-system: Developments in Europe, Publications Office of the European Union. [36] Helbling, T. (2010), “What Are Externalities?”, Finance and Development, Vol. 47/4, https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2010/12/basics.htm. [25] International Labour Organisation (ILO) (2020), Policy response to COVID-19 for SSE enterprises in the Republic of Korea, https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/cooperatives/news/WCMS_742645/lang--en/index.htm. [34] McCarthy, A. (2018), The Macroeconomics of the Circular Economy Transition: A Critical Review of Modelling Approaches, OECD Publishing. [17] Mendell, M. (2014), Improving Social Inclusion at the Local Level through the Social Economy: Designing an Enabling Policy Framework, OECD. [9] Mertens, S. (2020), “L’économie sociale tient le bon rythme”, Libre Eco week-end Interview by Vincent Slits, pp. 2-3. [11] Noya, A. and E. Clarence (eds.) (2007), The Social Economy. Building Inclusive Economies, OECD. [30] OECD (2020), Coronavirus (COVID-19) From pandemic to recovery: Local employment and economic development, http://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/from-pandemic-to-recovery-local-employment-and-economic-development-879d2913/. [29] OECD (2020), Coronavirus (COVID-19): SME policy responses, http://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/coronavirus-covid-19-sme-policy-responses-04440101/. [22] OECD (2020), COVID-19 and Responsible Business Conduct, http://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/covid-19-and-responsible-business-conduct-02150b06/. [31] OECD (2020), OECD Economic Outlook, https://doi.org/10.1787/0d1d1e2e-en. [20] OECD (2020), Policy implications of Coronavirus crisis for rural development, http://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/policy-implications-of-coronavirus-crisis-for-rural-development-6b9d189a/#figure-d1e543. [16] OECD (2020), Regional Strategies for the Social Economy. Examples from France, Spain, Sweden and Poland, OECD Publishing. [7] OECD (2018), Job Creation and Local Economic Development 2018. Preparing for the future of work, OECD Publishing. [18] OECD (2013), Job Creation through the Social Economy and Social Entrepreneurship. [24] OECD (2011), Update of the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises. [32] OECD (forthcoming), Job retention schemes during the COVID-19 lockdown and beyond. [35] OECD (Caldera Sánchez, A., et al.) (2017), Strengthening economic resilience: Insights from the post-1970 record of severe recessions and financial crises, OECD Publishing. [23] Porter, M. and M. Kramer (2011), “CReating Shared Value”, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 89/1-2, pp. 62-77. [3] R&S (2015), Economie sociale: Bilan de l’emploi en 2014, Recherches & Solidarités. [37] Raworth, K. (2017), Doughnut Economics: Seven Ways to Think Like a 21st-Century Economist, Penguin. [8] Social Enterprise UK (SEUK) (2018), Hidden Revolution. Size and Scale of Social Enterprise in 2018. [19] Social enterprise UK (SEUK) (2020), Social Enterprise and COVID-19, SEUK, https://www.socialenterprise.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Social-Enterprise-COVID-19-research-report-2020.pdf. [14] Spear, R. (2000), “The co-operative advantage”, Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, Vol. 71/4, pp. 507-523. [13] Steinberg, R. (2006), Economic Theories of Nonprofit Organizations, Yale University Press. [15] Young, D. (2008), A unified theory of social enterprise, Edward Elgar Publishing. [1] Young, D. (2007), Towards a Normative Theory of Nonprofit Finance, AltaMira Press. ← 1. Services are considered of general interest when they are essential to the lives of the majority of the general public and, therefore, subject to specific public service obligations (such as public transport, postal services, education and healthcare). They can be provided either by the state or by the private sector (European Commission, n.d.[33]). ← 2. Economic resilience can be defined as the capacity of an economy to reduce vulnerabilities, to resist to shocks and to recover quickly. It can be strengthened by exploring the role of policies that mitigate both the risks and consequences of severe crises (OECD (Caldera Sánchez, A., et al.), 2017[35]). ← 3. While there is no single accepted definition of a circular economy, it is generally understood that the “transition to a circular economy” entails a reduced demand for natural resources, and the materials that are derived from them (McCarthy, 2018[34]). Breaking with the “Take-Make-Waste” linear economy, a circular economy is based on the principles of designing out waste and pollution, keeping products and materials in use, and regenerating natural systems (Ellen Macarthur Foundation, n.d.[38]). ← 4. Externalities are among the main reasons governments intervene in the economic sphere. Externalities are the indirect effects that have an impact on the consumption and production opportunities of others, but the price of the product does not take those externalities into account. As a result, there are differences between private returns or costs and the returns or costs to society as a whole (Helbling, 2010[36]). ← 5. Kate Raworth’s “doughnut economics” focuses on meeting the needs of all within the means of the planet. It ensures internationally agreed minimum social standards (social foundation) are met without exhausting the planet and causing unacceptable ecological degradation (environmental ceiling) (Raworth, 2017[37]). References[1] Young, D. (2007), Towards a Normative Theory of Nonprofit Finance, AltaMira Press. References[2] European Union (2016), Social Enterprises and their Eco-system: Developments in Europe, Publications Office of the European Union. References[3] R&S (2015), Economie sociale: Bilan de l’emploi en 2014, Recherches & Solidarités. References[4] CIRIEC (2012), The Social Economy in the European Union, European Economic and Social Committee (EESC), http://www.ciriec.uliege.be/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/EESC_CIRIECReport2012_EN.pdf.Open URLReferences[5] Birchall, J. and L. Ketilson (2009), Resilience of the Cooperative Business Model in Times of Crisis, International Labour Organization. References[6] CIRIEC (2017), Recent evolutions of the Social Economy in the European Union, European Economic and Social Committee, European Union, http://www.ciriec.uliege.be/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/RecentEvolutionsSEinEU_Study2017.pdf. Open URLReferences[7] OECD (2018), Job Creation and Local Economic Development 2018. Preparing for the future of work, OECD Publishing. References[6] CIRIEC (2017), Recent evolutions of the Social Economy in the European Union, European Economic and Social Committee, European Union, http://www.ciriec.uliege.be/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/RecentEvolutionsSEinEU_Study2017.pdf. Open URLReferences[7] OECD (2018), Job Creation and Local Economic Development 2018. Preparing for the future of work, OECD Publishing. References[7] OECD (2018), Job Creation and Local Economic Development 2018. Preparing for the future of work, OECD Publishing. References[8] Social Enterprise UK (SEUK) (2018), Hidden Revolution. Size and Scale of Social Enterprise in 2018. References[9] Mertens, S. (2020), “L’économie sociale tient le bon rythme”, Libre Eco week-end Interview by Vincent Slits, pp. 2-3. References[10] Ben-Ner, A. (2006), For-profit, state, and non-profit: how to cut the pie among three sectors, Edward Elgar. References[11] Noya, A. and E. Clarence (eds.) (2007), The Social Economy. Building Inclusive Economies, OECD. References[12] Borzaga, C. and E. Tortia (2007), Chapter 1. Social Economy Organisations in the Theory of the Firm, OECD. References[10] Ben-Ner, A. (2006), For-profit, state, and non-profit: how to cut the pie among three sectors, Edward Elgar. References[13] Steinberg, R. (2006), Economic Theories of Nonprofit Organizations, Yale University Press. References[14] Spear, R. (2000), “The co-operative advantage”, Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, Vol. 71/4, pp. 507-523. References[11] Noya, A. and E. Clarence (eds.) (2007), The Social Economy. Building Inclusive Economies, OECD. References[12] Borzaga, C. and E. Tortia (2007), Chapter 1. Social Economy Organisations in the Theory of the Firm, OECD. References[13] Steinberg, R. (2006), Economic Theories of Nonprofit Organizations, Yale University Press. References[15] Young, D. (2008), A unified theory of social enterprise, Edward Elgar Publishing. References[16] OECD (2020), Regional Strategies for the Social Economy. Examples from France, Spain, Sweden and Poland, OECD Publishing. References[11] Noya, A. and E. Clarence (eds.) (2007), The Social Economy. Building Inclusive Economies, OECD. References[17] Mendell, M. (2014), Improving Social Inclusion at the Local Level through the Social Economy: Designing an Enabling Policy Framework, OECD. References[18] OECD (2013), Job Creation through the Social Economy and Social Entrepreneurship. References[19] Social enterprise UK (SEUK) (2020), Social Enterprise and COVID-19, SEUK, https://www.socialenterprise.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Social-Enterprise-COVID-19-research-report-2020.pdf. Open URLReferences[20] OECD (2020), Policy implications of Coronavirus crisis for rural development, http://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/policy-implications-of-coronavirus-crisis-for-rural-development-6b9d189a/#figure-d1e543. Open DOIReferences[9] Mertens, S. (2020), “L’économie sociale tient le bon rythme”, Libre Eco week-end Interview by Vincent Slits, pp. 2-3. References[16] OECD (2020), Regional Strategies for the Social Economy. Examples from France, Spain, Sweden and Poland, OECD Publishing. References[21] de Woot, P. (2013), Repenser l’entreprise, Académie royale de Belgique. References[22] OECD (2020), COVID-19 and Responsible Business Conduct, http://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/covid-19-and-responsible-business-conduct-02150b06/. 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