Before applying a stethoscope chest piece to the patients skin it should be

1. Graber ML, Franklin N, Gordon R. Diagnostic error in internal medicine. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:1493–1499. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

2. McSherry D. Avoiding premature closure in sequential diagnosis. Artif Intell Med. 1997;10:269–283. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

3. Croskerry P. The importance of cognitive errors in diagnosis and strategies to minimize them. Acad Med. 2003;78:775–780. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

4. Croskerry P, Singhal G, Mamede S. Cognitive debiasing 1: origins of bias and theory of debiasing. BMJ Qual Saf. 2013;22(Suppl 2):ii58–ii68. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

5. Hafner K. “For second opinion, consult a computer?” New York Times. December 2, 2012. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/04/health/quest-to-eliminate-diagnostic-lapses.html Accessed September 20, 2013 at.

6. Tsai J, Bond G. A comparison of electronic records to paper records in mental health centers. Int J Qual Health Care. 2008;20:136–143. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

7. Argent J, Faulkner A, Jones A. Communication skills in palliative care: development and modification of a rating scale. Med Educ. 1994;28:559–565. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

8. Kirscht JP. Communications between patients and physicians. Ann Intern Med. 1977;86:499–500. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

9. Faulkner A. ABC of palliative care. Communication with patients, families, and other professionals. BMJ. 1998;316:130–132. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

10. Groopman J. Houghton Mifflin Co.; Boston: 2007. How doctors think. pp 1–307. [Google Scholar]

11. Lipkin M, Jr, Quill TE, Napodano RJ. The medical interview: a core curriculum for residencies in internal medicine. Ann Intern Med. 1984;100:277–284. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

12. Lipkin M Jr, Putnam SM, Lazare A, editors. The medical interview: clinical care, education, and research. Springer Verlag; New York: 1994. [Google Scholar]

13. Benaroia M, Elinson R, Zarnke K. Patient-directed intelligent and interactive computer medical history-gathering systems: a utility and feasibility study in the emergency department. Int J Med Inform. 2007;76:283–288. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

14. Schattner A. The essence of patient care. J Intern Med. 2003;254:1–4. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

15. Platt R. Two essays on the practice of medicine. Manchester Univ Med Sch Gazet. 1947;27:139–145. [Google Scholar]

16. Hampton JR, Harrison MJ, Mitchell JR. Relative contributions of history-taking, physical examination, and laboratory investigation to diagnosis and management of medical outpatients. Br Med J. 1975;2:486–489. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

17. Sandler G. The importance of the history in the medical clinic and the cost of unnecessary tests. Am Heart J. 1980;100:928–931. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

18. Peterson MC, Holbrook JH, Von Hales D. Contributions of the history, physical examination, and laboratory investigation in making medical diagnoses. West J Med. 1992;156:163–165. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

19. Hurwitz B. Narrative and the practice of medicine. Lancet. 2000;356:2086–2089. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

20. Charon R. Narrative and medicine. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:862–864. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

21. Morélet-Panzini C, Demoule A, Straus C. Dyspnea as a noxious sensation: inspiratory threshold loading may trigger diffuse noxious inhibitory controls in humans. J Neuophysiol. 2007;97:1396–1404. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

22. Yu J. Airway receptors and their reflex function-invited article. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2009;648:411–420. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

23. Borg GA. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1982;14:377–381. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

24. Medical Research Council Committee on the Aetiology of Chronic Bronchitis standardized questionnaires on respiratory symptoms. Br Med J. 1960;2:1665. [Google Scholar]

25. Lareau SC, Carrieri-Kohlman V, Janson-Bjerklie S. Development and testing of the Pulmonary Functional Status and Dyspnea Questionnaire (PFSDQ) Heart Lung. 1994;23:242–250. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

26. Mahler DA, Waterman LA, Ward J. Validity and responsiveness of the self-administered computerized versions of the baseline and transition dyspnea indexes. Chest. 2007;132:1283–1290. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

27. O'Donnell DE, Laveneziana P. Dyspnea and activity limitation in COPD: mechanical factors. COPD. 2007;4:225–236. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

28. Baggish AL, van Kimmenade RR, Januzzi JL., Jr Amino-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide testing and prognosis in patients with acute dyspnea, including those with acute heart failure. Am J Cardiol. 2008;101:49–55. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

29. Bennett WD, Foster WM, Chapman WF. Cough-enhanced mucus clearance in the normal lung. J Appl Physiol. 1990;69:1670–1675. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

30. Chang AB. The physiology of cough. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2006;7:2–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

31. Irwin RS, Curley FJ, French CL. Chronic cough. The spectrum and frequency of causes, key components of the diagnostic evaluation, and outcome of specific therapy. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990;141:640–647. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

32. Brightling CE, Ward R, Goh KL. Eosinophilic bronchitis is an important cause of chronic cough. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:406–410. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

33. Lacourciere Y, Brunner H, Irwin R. Effects of modulators of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system on cough. Losartan Cough Study Group. J Hypertens. 1994;12:1387–1393. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

34. Palombini BC, Villanova CA, Araujo E. A pathogenic triad in chronic cough: asthma, postnasal drip syndrome, and gastro-esophageal reflux disease. Chest. 1999;116:279–284. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

35. Pavord ID, Chung KF. Chronic cough 2. Management of chronic cough. Lancet. 2008;373:1375–1384. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

36. Irwin RS, Madison JM. The persistently troublesome cough. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;165:1469–1474. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

37. Vertigan AE, Theodoros DG, Gibson PG. Review series: chronic cough: behaviour modification therapies for chronic cough. Chron Respir Dis. 2007;4:89–97. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

38. Corrao WM, Braman SS, Irwin RS. Chronic cough as the sole presenting manifestation of bronchial asthma. N Engl J Med. 1979;300:633–637. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

39. Ing AJ, Ngu MC. Cough and gastro-oesophageal reflux. Lancet. 1999;353:944–946. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

40. International standards for tuberculosis care (ISTC) ed 3. TB CARE; The Hague: 2014. [Google Scholar]

41. Vasquez JC, Halasz NA, Chu P. Traumatic abdominal wall hernia caused by persistent cough. South Med J. 1999;92:907–908. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

42. Pursel SE, Linkskog GE. Hemoptysis. A clinical evaluation of 105 patients examined consecutively on a thoracic surgical service. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1961;84:329–336. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

43. Hirshberg B, Biran I, Glazer M. Hemoptysis: etiology, evaluation, and outcome in a tertiary referral hospital. Chest. 1997;112:440–444. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

44. Santiago S, Tobias J, Williams AJ. A reappraisal of the causes of hemoptysis. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151:2449–2451. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

45. Johnston H, Reisz G. Changing spectrum of hemoptysis. Underlying causes in 148 patients undergoing diagnostic flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopy. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149:1666–1668. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

46. Anderson PE. Imaging and interventional radiological treatment of hemoptysis. Acta Radiol. 2006;47:780–792. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

47. Khalil A, Fartoukh M, Tassart M. Role of MDCT in identification of the bleeding site and vessels causing hemoptysis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2007;188:W117–W125. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

48. Kost GJ, Tran NK. Point-of-care testing and cardiac biomarkers: the standard of care and vision for Chest Pain Centers. Cardiol Clin. 2005;23:467–490. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

49. Gnann JW, Jr, Whitley RJ. Clinical practice. Herpes zoster. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:340–346. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

50. Davies SW. Clinical presentation and diagnosis of coronary artery disease: stable angina. Br Med Bull. 2001;59:17–27. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

51. Mayer S, Hillis LD. Prinzmetal's variant angina. Clin Cardiol. 1998;21:243–246. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

52. Wise CM. Chest wall syndromes. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 1994;6:197–202. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

53. Chan-Yeung M, Mich-Ward H. Respiratory health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. Respirology. 2003;8:131–139. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

54. Begin R, Christman JW. Detailed occupational history: the cornerstone in diagnosis of asbestos-related lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;163:598–599. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

55. Levy BS, Wegman DH. The occupational history in medical practice. What questions to ask and when to ask them. Postgrad Med. 1986;79:301–311. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

56. Kuschner WG, Stark P. Occupational lung disease. Part 1. Identifying work-related asthma and other disorders. Postgrad Med. 2003;113:70–78. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

57. Kuschner WG, Stark P. Occupational lung disease. Part 2. Discovering the cause of diffuse parenchymal lung disease. Postgrad Med. 2003;113:81–88. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

58. Spira AM. Assessment of travelers who return home ill. Lancet. 2003;361:1459–1469. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

59. Scurr JH, Machin SJ, Bailey-King S. Frequency and prevention of symptomless deep-vein thrombosis in long-haul flights: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2001;357:1485–1489. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

60. Rosenstock L, Logerfo J, Heyer NJ. Development and validation of a self-administered occupational health history questionnaire. J Occup Med. 1984;26:50–54. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

61. Bachman JW. The patient-computer interview: a neglected tool that can aid the clinician. Mayo Clin Proc. 2003;78:67–78. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

62. Jauhar S. The demise of the physical exam. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:548–553. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

63. Crombie DL. Diagnostic process. J Coll Gen Pract. 1963;6:579–589. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

64. Roussos C, Macklem PT. The respiratory muscles. N Engl J Med. 1982;307:786–797. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

65. Maitre B, Similowski T, Derenne JP. Physical examination of the adult patient with respiratory diseases: inspection and palpation. Eur Respir J. 1995;8:1584–1593. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

66. Yernault JC. History, symptoms and clinical examination in pleural disease. In: Loddenkemper R, Antony VB, editors. vol 7. European Respiratory Society Monograph; Sheffield, UK: 2002. pp. 60–75. (Pleural diseases). [Google Scholar]

67. Markel H. The stethoscope and the art of listening. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:551–553. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

68. Murphy RLH. In defense of the stethoscope. Respir Care. 2008;53:355–369. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

69. Dellinger RP, Parrillo JE, Kushnir A. Dynamic visualization of lung sounds with a vibration response device: a case series. Respiration. 2008;75:60–72. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

70. Jacome C, Marques A. Computerized respiratory sounds in patients with COPD: a systematic review. COPD. 2014 PubMed PMID: 24914587. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

71. Oliveira A, Marques A. Respiratory sounds in healthy people: a systematic review. Respir Med. 2014;108(4):550–570. PubMed PMID: 24491278. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

72. Mor R, Kushnir I, Ekstein J. Breath sound distribution images of patients with pneumonia and pleural effusion. Respir Care. 2007;52:1753–1760. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

73. Tavel ME. Cardiac auscultation: a glorious past—and it does have a future! Circulation. 2006;113:1255–1259. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

74. Bohadana A, Izbicki G, Kraman SS. Fundamentals of lung auscultation. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(8):744–751. PubMed PMID: 24552321. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

75. Hoffmann C, Falzone E, Verret C. Brief report: pulmonary auscultation in the operating room: a prospective randomized blinded trial comparing electronic and conventional stethoscopes. Anesth Analg. 2013;117:646–648. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

76. Tourtier JP, Fontaine E, Coste S. In flight auscultation: comparison of electronic and conventional stethoscopes. Am J Emerg Med. 2011;29:932–935. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

77. Iversen K, Sogaard Teisner A, Dalsgaard M. Effect of teaching and type of stethoscope on cardiac auscultatory performance. Am Heart J. 2006;152(85):e1–e7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

78. Walsh K. Stethoscope hygiene: what can be done? J Hosp Infect. 2013;85:84. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

79. Pasterkamp H, Kraman SS, Wodicka GR. Respiratory sounds. Advances beyond the stethoscope. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;156:974–987. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

80. Mikami R, Murao M, Cugell DW. International symposium on lung sounds. Synopsis of proceedings. Chest. 1987;92:342–345. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

81. Kraman SS. Transmission of lung sounds through light clothing. Respiration. 2008;75:85–88. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

82. Baughman RP, Loudon RG. Sound spectral analysis of voice-transmitted sound. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1986;134:167–169. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

83. American Thoracic Society Ad Hoc Committee on Pulmonary Nomenclature updated nomenclature for membership reaction. ATS News. 1977;3:5–6. [Google Scholar]

84. Piirila P, Sovijarvi AR. Crackles: recording, analysis and clinical significance. Eur Respir J. 1995;8:2139–2148. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

85. Nath AR, Capel LH. Inspiratory crackles and mechanical events of breathing. Thorax. 1974;29:695–698. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

86. Pürilä P, Sovijarvi AR, Kaisla T. Crackles in patients with fibrosing alveolitis, bronchiectasis, COPD, and heart failure. Chest. 1991;99:1076–1083. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

87. Meslier N, Charbonneau G, Racineux JL. Wheezes. Eur Respir J. 1995;8:1942–1948. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

88. Coleman JJ, Ferner RE. Correspondence: fundamentals of lung auscultation. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(21):2052. PubMed PMID: 24849096. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

89. Bohadana A, Izbicki G, Kraman SS. Author's reply: fundamentals of lung auscultation. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(21):2053. PubMed PMID: 24849095. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

90. Ozgursoy OB, Batikhan H, Beton S. Sudden-onset life-threatening stridor in an adult caused by a laryngeal ductal cyst. Ear Nose Throat J. 2009;88:828–830. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

91. Wipf JE, Lipsky BA, Hirschmann JV. Diagnosing pneumonia by physical examination: relevant or relic? Arch Intern Med. 1999;159:1082–1087. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

92. Renaud B, Coma E, Labareree J. Routine use of the pneumonia severity index for guiding the site-of-treatment decision of patients with pneumonia in the emergency department: a multi-center, prospective, observational, controlled cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:50–52. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

93. Myers KA, Farquhar DR. The rational clinical examination. Does this patient have clubbing? JAMA. 2001;286:341–347. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

94. Hansen-Flaschen J, Nordberg J. Clubbing and hypertrophic osteoarthropathy. Clin Chest Med. 1987;8:287–298. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

95. Vandemergel X, Renneboog B. Prevalence, aetiologies and significance of clubbing in a department of general internal medicine. Eur J Intern Med. 2008;19:325–329. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

96. Zar HJ, Hussey G. Finger clubbing in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Ann Trop Paediatr. 2001;21:15–19. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

97. Rodriguez-Roisin R, Krowka MJ. Hepatopulmonary syndrome—a liver-induced vascular disorder. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2378–2387. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

98. McGavin C, Hughes P. Finger clubbing in malignant mesothelioma and benign asbestos pleural disease. Respir Med. 1998;92:691–692. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

99. Atkinson S, Fox SB. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) play a central role in the pathogenesis of digital clubbing. J Pathol. 2004;203:721–728. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

100. Drazner MH, Rame JE, Dries DL. Third heart sound and elevated jugular venous pressure as markers of the subsequent development of heart failure in patients with asymptomatic left ventricular dysfunction. Am J Med. 2003;114:431–437. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]


Page 2

PMC full text:

Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID-19. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVID-19-related research that is available on the COVID-19 resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for free by Elsevier for as long as the COVID-19 resource centre remains active.

Selected Biases in Judgment or Reasoning

BiasDefinition
AnchoringTendency to lock onto salient features in the patient's initial presentation too early in the diagnostic process, and failing to adjust this initial impression in light of later information.
Confirmation biasTendency to look for confirming evidence to support a diagnosis rather than to look for evidence to refute it, despite the latter often being more persuasive and definitive.
Framing effectTendency to be strongly influenced by how the problem is presented (e.g., perceptions of risk to the patient strongly influenced by whether the possible outcome is expressed in terms of the possibility that the patient might die or might live).
Premature closureTendency to accept a diagnosis before it has been fully verified. The consequences of the bias are reflected in the maxim ‘‘When the diagnosis is made, the thinking stops.’'
Search satisfyingTendency to call off a search once something is found. Comorbidities, second foreign bodies, other fractures, and coingestants in poisoning may all be missed. Also, if the search yields nothing, diagnosticians should satisfy themselves that they have been looking in the right place.
Unpacking principleFailure to elicit all relevant information (unpacking), which may result in missing significant diagnostic possibilities.