Margaret Mahler was a 20th century psychiatrist who studied children's development and developed the theories of individuation and separation. Professional LifeMargaret Mahler was born in Hungary on May 10, 1897. She became interested in psychoanalysis as a teen when she met Sandor Ferenczi. She studied medicine at the University of Budapest beginning in 1917, before transferring to the University of Jena in Germany to study pediatrics. She graduated in 1922 and settled in Vienna, Austria. She began training in psychoanalysis in 1926. After several years of working with children, Mahler was certified as an analyst in 1933. She married Paul Mahler in 1936, and the couple fled Austria as the Nazis rose to power, settling in Britain before moving to New York in 1938. She began a private practice and worked with experts such as Dr. Benjamin Spock. Mahler taught child therapy and was a member of the New York Psychoanalytic Society and the Institute of Human Development. She also became heavily involved in research directed toward pediatric mental health. She taught at Columbia University between 1941 and 1955, and she served as a clinical professor of psychiatry at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine until 1974. Mahler spent most of her career working with psychologically impaired children. She was among the first psychologists to specialize in the treatment of psychotic children. Her work in this area led to the book The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant: Symbiosis and Individuation. In addition, she co-founded the Masters Children’s Centre in New York with her colleague Manuel Furer. It was from here that Mahler created and taught the Tripartite Treatment Model, a therapeutic approach involving both the child and mother. Mahler received several awards for her work throughout her career, including Barnard College's highest honor, the Barnard Medal of Distinction, in 1980. Mahler passed away in 1985 in New York City. Contribution to PsychologyMahler’s most significant contribution to the field of psychology was her theory on separation and individuation. Mahler believed that children exist in a symbiotic phase until they reach about six months of age. During this time they are unaware of their surroundings and others and only are cognizant of themselves as one with their mothers. They do not see beyond that relationship. After about the age of six months, the separation-individuation phase commences and the child begins to distinguish him- or herself from the mother, thus developing an individual identity and ego. It is during this phase that the child also begins to develop cognitive skills and master the ability to communicate with others. For Mahler, this “psychological birth” proceeds according to a predictable pattern:
Mahler proposed that early in development the child does not have a concept of object constancy for the mother, which means when the mother disappears, she ceases to exist. This concept is similar to Jean Piaget's theory of object permanence. As a child matures, perception of his or her mother begins to evolve and the child internalizes the image of her. Children who hold positive internal images of their mothers continue to feel support throughout adulthood, while those who do not may struggle with insecurities relating from their childhood perceptions. Mahler argued that disruptions in the normal developmental trajectory could lead to maladaptive behavior, including child psychosis. References:
Last Update: 07-06-2015 1 The birth process occurs in stages 2 The stage of the birth process is the longest one 3 Which of the following is a feature of the first stage of birth? Contractions causing the cervix to stretch and dilate to about 4 inches 4 At which stage of the birth process is the amniotic sac most likely to rupture? 5 The second stage of birth begins when the: baby’s head starts to move through the cervix and the birth canal 6 The___________birth stage terminates when baby completely emerges from the mother’s 7 The major activity of the third birth stage is the: expulsion of the placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes 8 Which of the following statements is true about the third stage of birth? 9 Compared with physicians, certified nurse-midwives generally: provide more emotional support 10 are drugs that are used to relieve pain 11 Katy, who is expecting her first baby, is in the 42nd week of her pregnancy. Her doctor has recommended that she be given _______to induce 12 Katy, who is expecting her first baby, is in the 42nd week of her pregnancy. Her doctor has recommended that she be given to induce 13 Which of the following is true with regard to anesthesia? General anesthesia can be transmitted to the fetus through the placenta. 14 Keesha is very keen on staying alert and conscious throughout the delivery process but she is experiencing a lot of pain during her labor. Her doctor suggests that the best option for her would be to receive a(n) to relieve her pain and retain awareness throughout the 15 Oxytocin is a synthetic hormone that 16 Which of the following is a current trend seen in the use of medication for childbirth in the United States?
17 Which of the following is a current trend seen in the use of medication for childbirth in the United States? There is moderate use of medication combined with techniques of natural or prepared 18 Natural childbirth is a method that was developed in 1914 by 19 Natural childbirth aims to reduce the mother’s pain by: reducing her fears and increasing her ability to relax 20 The prepared childbirth method, which involves a special breathing technique to control pushing in the final stages of labor, was developed by: 21 Natural childbirth and prepared childbirth are different from each other in that: prepared childbirth focuses more on anatomy and physiology 22 Which of the following factors is not emphasized by prepared childbirth methods? Medication (Virtually all of the prepared childbirth methods emphasize education, relaxation and breathing exercises, and support) 23 Carlotta has just been told that her baby is in a breech position. This means that: the baby’s potential respiratory problems need to be considered 24 The obstetrician has suggested that Whitney opt for a cesarean section to deliver her baby. Which of the following would be a good reason for Whitney’s doctor to recommend a cesarean section? Whitney was experiencing severe vaginal bleeding 25 If the delivery takes too long, the baby can develop . 26 During the birth process, the baby’s body secretes large quantities of to help the baby withstand the stress of birth. adrenaline and noradrenaline 27 When babies are born, they are covered with a protective skin grease called: 28 Which of the following is thought to help protect the baby’s skin against heat loss before and during birth? 29 The Apgar Scale rates infants’ responses in the areas of heart rate, respiratory effort,__________ muscle tone, reflex irritability, and body color 30 Which of the following is used to assess the health of newborns at one and five minutes after birth? 31 The Apgar Scale involves newborns receiving a score of 0, 1, or 2 on five health signs, with a score of at least required to assume that the newborn’s condition is good 32 A total Apgar score of indicates there may be developmental difficulties. 33 A total Apgar score of signals an emergency and indicates that the baby might not survive. 34 Which of the following measures of neonatal health and responsiveness is typically performed within 24 to 36 hours after birth? Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale (NBAS) is used as a sensitive index of neurological competence up to one month after birth for typical infants and in many studies as a measure of infant development. 35 The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale is primarily used to determine a newborn’s: neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people 36 The Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale is typically performed: within 24 to 36 hours after birth. 37 By the time Taylor reached the hospital toward the end of the 38th week of conception, her baby had already moved down the birth canal and a cesarean section could not be conducted. Taylor had an extremely difficult and prolonged labor as her baby was in breech position. After doctors had successfully delivered her baby, they had to wait a bit before the baby cried. The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale was conducted the next day and her baby obtained a very low score. Which of the following is true with regard to Taylor’s baby? Taylor’s baby is highly likely to have experienced anoxia and related brain damage. 38 Which of the following instruments provides the most comprehensive analysis of the newborn’s behavior, neurological and stress responses, and regulatory capacities? The Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) provides a more comprehensive analysis of the newborn’s behavior, neurological and stress responses, and regulatory capacities. Whereas the NBAS was developed to assess normal, healthy, full-term infants, the NNNS was developed by T. Berry Brazelton, along with Barry Lester and Edward Tronick, to assess the “at- risk” infant 39 Which of the following differentiates between the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) and the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS)? The NBAS was developed to assess normal, healthy, full-term infants, while the NNNS was developed to assess the “at-risk” infant. 40 A low birth weight infant weighs less than pounds at birth. 41 A very low birth weight infant weighs less than pounds at birth 42 An extremely low birth weight infant weighs less than pounds at birth 43 Kyle was born 34 weeks after conception and weighed about six pounds. He was a: preterm baby (Preterm infants are those born three weeks or more before the pregnancy has reached its full term—in other words, before the completion of 37 weeks of gestation (the time between fertilization and birth). Since Kyle was born 34 weeks after conception, he will be classified as a preterm infant.) 44 Babies are considered preterm if they are born: before the completion of 37 weeks of gestation 45 In the developing world, low birth weight stems mainly from: the mother’s poor health and nutrition 46 In developed countries, low birth weight stems mainly from: cigarette smoking during pregnancy 47 Very preterm infants are those born: between 28 and 33 weeks of gestation 48 Which of the following statements is true? Low birth weight and preterm birth are associated with higher levels of brain injury 49 Two increasingly used interventions to nurture preterm babies in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) are: kangaroo care and massage therapy 50 Which of the following is true with regard to the postpartum period? Primary caregiver experiences can result in a major loss of sleep in this period 51 Hyeree had a baby girl over a month ago. Hank, her husband has noticed that Hyeree cries and worries a lot nowadays. He has also noted that she is unable to sleep well and has been eating lesser than she normally does. She has been making many mistakes, forgetting routine tasks, and is having trouble coping with her daily tasks. Which of the following is true with regard to Hyeree’s current condition? Hyeree should seek professional counseling as her depressive symptoms are strong and prolonged. 52 Emotional fluctuations in the first few weeks after childbirth most often: abate on their own as they are common 53 When is postpartum depression most likely to occur? About four weeks after delivery 54 Which of the following is true about postpartum depression? Without treatment, postpartum depression may last for many months 55 Which of the following is an example of postpartum depression? Dora told her doctor that she has been feeling extremely low and helpless ever since she had her baby two months back and often feels incapable of nurturing her baby well 56 Which of the following statements about bonding is accurate? Drugs given to mothers during childbirth can negatively affect the bonding experience right after birth. 57 Brenda is very tired after the birth of her baby and wants the baby to stay in the nursery to allow her to recover from the birth. If the baby does spend this time away from Brenda, then: Brenda will still be able to bond with her baby 58 The sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the top—the head—with physical growth and differentiation of features gradually working their way down from top to bottom is known as the pattern 59 The sensory and motor developments in infants generally proceed according to the principle 60 During pregnancy, the size of the head is half the size of the total body length when the fetus is: 61 In a new born baby, the size of the head is approximately the proportion of the total body length. 62 Proximodistal pattern of growth refers to: the sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the 63 Which of the following is an example of proximodistal pattern of growth? Polly learning to grab the objects with her whole hands before learning to pick them up with her fingers 64 Which of the following is a syndrome that affects large number of babies in the United States, causes severe brain damage, and includes symptoms such as brain swelling and hemorrhaging? 65 Which of the following brain imaging techniques has been successfully used by researchers to learn about the brain’s development in infancy? 66 he newborn’s brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight by birth; by the second birthday, the brain is about percent of its adult weight. 75 (However, the brain’s areas do not mature uniformly.) 67 Which of the following areas of the brain is farthest from the spinal cord and includes cerebral cortex? The cerebral cortex covers the forebrain like a wrinkled cap.
4. Hypothalamus 68 The tissue that covers the forebrain like a wrinkled cap and includes two halves or hemispheres is called the . 69 The parietal lobes play an important role in: registering spatial location, maintaining attention, and administering motor control 70
. 71 Which of the following functions is lateralized to the left hemisphere of the cortex in most human brains? 72 Which of the following functions is an outcome of communication between both hemispheres of the brain in normal people? 73 The________lobes of the cerebral cortex are involved in voluntary movement, thinking, personality, emotion, memory, sustained attention, and intentionality or 74 Which of the following is a dramatic change in the brain in infants in the first two years of life? Dendritic connectivity (increases the connections between neurons. Whereas myelination speeds up neural transmissions, the expansion of dendritic connections facilitates the spreading of neural pathways in infant development. The adult density of synapses is not achieved until middle to late adolescence) 75 The_______lobes of the cerebral cortex are involved in voluntary movement, thinking, personality, emotion, memory, sustained attention, and intentionality or 76 The unused synaptic connections will be replaced by other pathways or they disappear. In the language of neuroscience, these connections are said to be . 77 Myelination for visual pathways: is completed in the first six months after (Auditory myelination is not completed until 4 or 5 years of age) 78 In infants, in which of the following areas of brain, the peak of synaptic overproduction occurs at about the fourth postnatal month? 79 The region of the frontal lobe has the most prolonged development of any brain region, with changes detectable at least into emerging adulthood 80 Infants of 0 to 2 years of age sleep an average of hours a day. 81 Based on the studies conducted on infant sleep-related problems, which of the following factors will be linked to fewer infant sleep problems?
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In adults, REM sleep usually appears after non-REM Adults spend about one-fifth of their night in REM sleep, and REM sleep usually appears about one hour after non-REM sleep. Infants often begin their sleep cycle with REM sleep rather than non-REM sleep. By the time infants reach 3 months of age, REM sleep no longer begins their sleep cycle. A much greater amount of time is taken up by REM sleep in infancy than at any other point in the life span 84 Which of the following is a high-risk factor for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)? Prone sleeping (lying flat, especially face downward) 85 Who among the following infants is more likely to suffer from SIDS? Noah, who uses a pacifier when she goes to sleep Ethan, who is suffering from sleep apnea 86 The nutrient need for infants recommended by nutritionists is approximately calories per day for each pound they 87 Which of the following conclusions is true based on the research conducted on benefits of breast feeding for the child? It reduces gastrointestinal infections in infants 88 is a condition caused by severe protein-calorie deficiency and results in wasting away of body tissues in the infant’s first year 89 Which of the following conditions resulting from malnutrition can cause a child’s vital organs to collect the nutrients that are present and deprive other parts of the body of them?
2. Kwashiorkor Kwashiorkor, which occurs due to severe protein deficiency, causes a child’s vital organs to collect the nutrients that are present and deprive other parts of the body of them. The child’s hair becomes thin, brittle, and colorless, and the child’s behavior often becomes listless. 90 Ana, a two-year old baby girl appears to be well-fed but is deficient of certain important proteins. Her hair is thin, colorless, and brittle. Based on these symptoms, the doctor examining Ana, is likely to relate her condition to the disorder of . 91 Which of the following vaccinations is given to infants at birth? воспаление печени 92 The first dose of vaccination for influenza is given to infants at the age of грипп 93 The immunization for polio is given till the age of: полиомиелит - детский паралич 94 The “dynamic systems theory” was proposed by . Esther Thelen The dynamic systems view on motor development 95 According to the “ theory,” to develop motor skills, infants must perceive something in the environment that motivates them to act and use their perceptions to fine-tune their 96 John, a two-month old baby boy, turns his head toward the side, when his cheek is stroked in an effort to find something to suck. The type of reflex exhibited by John is known as the 97 Which of the following reflexes has a survival value for newborns as it enables them to get nourishment before they have associated a nipple with food?
it also serves as a self-soothing or self-regulating mechanism. 98 When an infant is placed on back, it forms fists with both hands and usually turns head to the right. This reflex is known as the 99 Which of the following motor skills is achieved in the second year of life in infants?
100 Nathan, who is 10 months old, picks up small blocks using his thumb and forefinger. The type of grasp used by Nathan is called the 101 Which of the following is an example of a fine motor skill in infants? grasping Fine motor skills involve finely tuned movements. Grasping a toy, using a spoon, buttoning a shirt, or accomplishing anything that requires finger dexterity demonstrates fine motor skills. 102 The perceptual system used by infants to coordinate grasping varies with age. Four-month old infants rely greatly on to determine how they will grip an 103 The rays of light focused on the eyes are converted into electrical impulses by the 104 Which of the following views states that perception brings us into contact with the environment in order to interact with and adapt to it? The ecological view According to the Gibsons’ ecological view, we directly perceive information that exists in the world around us. Perception brings us into contact with the environment in order to interact with and adapt to it. 105 The method used to determine whether infants can distinguish one stimulus from another by measuring the length of time they attend to different stimuli is known as the method.
106 Which of the following methods uses a sound generating system to assess an infant’s attention to sound? High-amplitude sucking method 107 Alex was being a shown a sequence of objects which were of the same size and they all resembled a square. After sometime Alex lost interest in those objects. When they showed him a triangular object it suddenly caught his attention and he started looking at those objects again. This change in response in Alex is referred to as 108
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4. generalized response. 111
4. Size constancy 112 Ethan was able to recognize the ice-cream cone to be cone shaped even when the orientation of the cone was changed a number of times. This shows that Ethan has achieved . 113
Localization 114 Which of the following perceptions involves integrating information from two or more senses like vision and hearing?
Intermodal perception 115 In the field of perceptual development people who emphasize on learning and experience are called . empiricists empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. 116
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The ability of perception in infants is not innate but develops with learning and experience. 118
4. The dynamic systems view The Piaget’s constructivist view, which reflects an empiricist approach, states that much of the perceptual development in infancy must await the development of a sequence of cognitive stages in infants to construct more complex perceptual tasks. 119 What are the cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns? Give examples for each.
Example: Infants see objects before they can control their torso, and they can use their hands long before they can crawl or walk.
Example: Infants control the muscles of their trunk and arms before they control their hands and fingers, and they use their whole hands before they can control several fingers. 120 Describe any two diseases that can occur in infants due to malnutrition Marasmus: Marasmus is caused by a severe protein-calorie deficiency and results in a wasting away of body tissues in the infant’s first year. The infant becomes grossly underweight and his or her muscles atrophy. Kwashiorkor: Kwashiorkor, caused by severe protein deficiency, usually appears between 1 and 3 years of age. Children with kwashiorkor sometimes appear to be well fed even though they are not because the disease can cause the child’s abdomen and feet to swell with water. Kwashiorkor causes a child’s vital organs to collect the nutrients that are present and deprive other parts of the body of them. The child’s hair becomes thin, brittle, and colorless, and the child’s behavior often becomes listless. 121 Which of the following is true with regard to Piaget’s theory of infant development? Piaget’s theory is a general, unifying story of how biology and experience sculpt cognitive development. Piaget stressed that children actively construct their own cognitive worlds; information is not just poured into their minds from the environment. 123
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use their existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences 125
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the child experiencing renewed motivation to change and adapt 128
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secondary circular reactions 130
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The core knowledge approach 135
136 The focusing of mental resources on select information that improves cognitive processing on many tasks is defined as . 137
Sustained attention (устойчивое, длительное, непрерывное) 138 is defined as the increase in responsiveness after a change in stimulation. 139 _nfants’ attention to objects is strongly governed by the ______ and habituation. 140
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Explanation: Joint attention requires (1) an ability to track another’s behavior, such as following someone’s gaze; (2) one person directing another’s attention; and (3) reciprocal interaction. 142
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Deferred imitation is imitation that occurs after a delay of hours or days. Carol is displaying deferred imitation here. 144
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greater emphasis on social interaction in infants 148
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154 Receptive vocabulary comprises of: the words that the child understands but cannot speak 155
two-word utterances (высказывание) 156 is an area in the left frontal lobe of the brain that is involved in producing words. 157
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162 An interactionist view emphasizes that both and experience contribute to language development. 163
Parents should understand that different children acquire language at different speeds. 164
165 The aspect is at the forefront of emotion in infancy 166
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4. Guilt 168
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170 The cry is triggered by a high-intensity stimulus 171
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Social consciousness 174
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Negative affectivity includes “fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort.” These children are easily distressed; they may fret and cry often. 176
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In particular a(n) temperament is associated with a unique physiological pattern that includes high and stable heart rate, high level of the hormone cortisol, and high activity in the right frontal lobe of the brain. 180
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184 According to Harry Harlow, infants’ attachment depends on: 185
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attachment becomes focused on one figure, usually the primary caregiver 188
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infants are aware of others’ feelings and begin to take it into account in forming their actions. 190
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insecure disorganized 192
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196 Caregivers of insecure disorganized babies often neglect or physically abuse them. 197
198 Which of the following statements is true regarding the attachment theory?
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