Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP or US GAAP) are a collection of commonly-followed accounting rules and standards for financial reporting. The specifications of GAAP, which is the standard adopted by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), include definitions of concepts and principles, as well as industry-specific rules. The purpose of GAAP is to ensure that financial reporting is transparent and consistent from one organization to another. GAAP is merely a set of standards. Although its principles work to improve the transparency in financial statements, they do not provide any guarantee that a company's financial statements are free from errors or omissions that are intended to mislead investors. The SEC has stated that it intends to move from GAAP to the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). But the latter differ considerably from GAAP and progress toward adoption or convergence has been slow. (See International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).) While GAAP itself is not government-regulated, it exists because of the combined efforts of government and business. The use of GAAP is not mandatory for all businesses, but SEC requires publicly traded and regulated companies to follow GAAP for the purpose of financial reporting. Companies that issue stock are held to this standard by SEC, which requires yearly external audits by independent accountants, but companies without external investors are not obliged to follow this standard. Despite the mandate, the SEC is not responsible for the standards associated with GAAP. Instead, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) actively influences any changes in financial reporting standards used at the corporate level. The FASB Advisory Council (FASAC) advises the FASB on all matters that may influence GAAP rules. Government entities, on the other hand, are influenced by a set of standards that are slightly different from GAAP. The Government Accounting Standards Board (GASB) manages those standards. Other countries have their own GAAP rules, which differ from those in the United States. Each country's own version of the FASB, such as the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA), creates these rules. In 2008, the Securities and Exchange Commission issued a preliminary "roadmap" that may lead the United States to abandon GAAP in the future, and to join more than 100 countries around the world in using the London-based International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). As of 2010, the convergence was underway with the FASB meeting routinely with the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), which administers IFRS. The SEC expressed at that time its desire to fully adopt IFRS in the U.S. by 2014. (See International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).) With the convergence of the U.S. GAAP and the IFRS accounting systems, as the highest authority, the IASB is becoming more important in the United States. Although convergence efforts have stalled since FASB and IASB completed projects that better align accounting rules in U.S. GAAP and IFRS in February 2013—including revenue recognition, leases, and credit losses on financial instruments—former SEC Chair Mary Jo White said in January 2017 just prior to her departure that collaboration between the two boards should continue. She called for renewed emphasis on global accounting standards that would best serve investors through collaboration between FASB and IASB. Investors increasingly make their investment decisions in a global context of comparing investments in companies located in many countries that use different accounting, auditing, and other business practices. Making such comparisons is difficult, time-consuming, complex, and risky, even for seasoned professionals. The current SEC reconciliation requirement is an important tool that allows them to compare companies in different countries on an apples-to-apples basis. To the extent accounting standards have not yet converged (or new differences develop) investment professionals rely on the reconciliation as an efficient and cost effective way of bringing to their attention the material differences in accounting. For that reason, CFA Institute has long supported, as well as actively engaged in, the development of global accounting standards. Our objective has always been to encourage the IASB in developing financial reporting standards that meet the needs of investors, investment professionals, and other users. We also support the memorandum of understanding between the IASB and FASB to work together on converging IFRS and U.S. GAAP. The current reconciliation requirement for IFRS to U.S. GAAP serves as a primary tool for identifying the material differences in practice as well as in principle. We believe that the removal of that requirement would severely impede the Boards’ efforts to converge and improve financial reporting standards. We believe that the elimination of the reconciliation requirement could be expedited when the IASB and FASB complete their work on key projects, such as the conceptual framework, financial statement presentation, revenue recognition, and financial instruments.
Generally accepted accounting principles, or GAAP, are standards that encompass the details, complexities, and legalities of business and corporate accounting. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) uses GAAP as the foundation for its comprehensive set of approved accounting methods and practices. U.S. law requires businesses releasing financial statements to the public and companies publicly traded on stock exchanges and indices to follow GAAP guidelines. GAAP incorporates the following 10 concepts:
GAAP compliance makes the financial reporting process transparent and standardizes assumptions, terminology, definitions, and methods. External parties can easily compare financial statements issued by GAAP-compliant entities and safely assume consistency, which allows for quick and accurate cross-company comparisons. Because GAAP standards deliver transparency and continuity, they enable investors and stakeholders to make sound, evidence-based decisions. The consistency of GAAP compliance also allows companies to more easily evaluate strategic business options. What Are the Basic Principles of Accounting?GAAP incorporates three components that eliminate misleading accounting and financial reporting practices: 10 accounting principles, FASB rules and standards, and generally accepted industry practices. These components create consistent accounting and reporting standards, which provide prospective and existing investors with reliable methods of evaluating an organization's financial standing. Without GAAP, accountants could use misleading methods to paint a deceptive picture of a company or organization's financial standing. GAAP consists of these three parts: Basic Accounting Principles and GuidelinesThese 10 guidelines separate an organization's transactions from the personal transactions of its owners, standardize currency units used in reports, and explicitly disclose the time periods covered by specific reports. They also draw on established best practices governing cost, disclosure, matching, revenue recognition, professional judgment, and conservatism. Rules and Standards Issued by the FASB and Its Predecessor, the Accounting Principles Board (APB)The FASB issues an officially endorsed, regularly updated compendium of principles known as the FASB Accounting Standards Codification. The compendium includes standards based on the best practices previously established by the APB. These organizations are rooted in historic regulations governing financial reporting, which the federal government implemented following the 1929 stock market crash that triggered the Great Depression. Generally Accepted Industry PracticesAll organizations do not follow the GAAP model. Rather, particular businesses follow industry-specific best practices designed to reflect the nuances and complexities of different business areas. For example, banks operate using different accounting and financial reporting methods than those used by retail businesses.
Find a program that meets your affordability, flexibility, and education needs through an accredited, online school. History of GAAPWithout regulatory standards, companies would be free to present financial information in whichever format best suits their needs. With the ability to portray a company's fiscal standing in a favorable light, investors could be easily misled. The Great Depression in 1929, a financial catastrophe that caused years of hardship for millions of Americans, was primarily attributed to faulty and manipulative reporting practices among businesses. In response, the federal government, along with professional accounting groups, set out to create standards for the ethical and accurate reporting of financial information.
The Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) estimates that about half of the states officially require local and county governments to adhere to GAAP. According to accounting historian Stephen Zeff in The CPA Journal, GAAP terminology was first used in 1936 by the American Institute of Accountants (AIA). Federal endorsement of GAAP began with legislation like the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, laws enforced by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) that target public companies. Today, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), an independent authority, continually monitors and updates GAAP. All 50 state governments prepare their financial reports according to GAAP. The Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) estimates that about half of the states officially require local and county governments to adhere to GAAP. Who Came Up With Generally Accepted Accounting Principles?Even though the U.S. federal government requires public companies to abide by GAAP, the government takes no part in developing these principles. Instead, independent boards assume the responsibility of creating, maintaining, and updating accounting principles. As GAAP issues or questions arise, these boards meet to discuss potential changes and additional standards. For instance, when the COVID-19 pandemic hit, the board members met to address how governments and businesses must report the financial effects of the pandemic. To ensure the boards operate responsibly and fulfill their obligations, they fall under the supervision of the Financial Accounting Foundation. Financial Accounting Foundation (FAF)FAF formed in 1972 as the administrative corporation that oversees the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) and the Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB). The FAF is responsible for appointing board members and ensuring that these boards operate fairly and transparently. Members of the public can attend FAF organization meetings in person or through live webcasts. Financial Accounting Standards BoardOn the recommendation of the American Institute of CPAs (AICPA), the FASB was formed as an independent board in 1973 to take over GAAP determinations and updates. The board comprises seven full-time, impartial members, ensuring that it works for the public's best interest. The 35-member Financial Accounting Standards Advisory Council (FASAC) monitors the FASB. FASB is responsible for the Accounting Standards Codification (ASC), a centralized resource where accountants can find all current GAAP. The FASB Standards-Setting Process
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Governmental Accounting Standards BoardThe GASB was established in 1984 as a policy board charged with creating GAAP for state and local government organizations. Many groups rely on government financial statements, including constituents and lawmakers. GASB prioritizes fairness and transparency. The board's processes and communications are available for public review. The GASB Standards-Setting Process
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Find a program that meets your affordability, flexibility, and education needs through an accredited, online school. Non-GAAP ReportingMany businesses believe that GAAP accounting does not accurately reflect their company's success. Some companies include non-GAAP earnings in addition to those that follow GAAP methods. The table below presents IBM's fourth-quarter earnings report from 2016. These figures provide an excellent example of how the inclusion of non-GAAP earnings can affect the overall representation of a company's success. The first column indicates GAAP earnings, the middle two note non-GAAP adjustments, and the final column shows the non-GAAP totals. With non-GAAP metrics applied, the gross profit, income, and income margin increase, while the expenses decrease. Many companies support non-GAAP reporting because it provides an in-depth look at their financial performance. Some companies claim that it gives a more accurate overview. However, the non-GAAP numbers include pro forma figures, which do not include one-time transactions. Companies can use this information to their advantage and present totals that predict how their businesses will perform in the future. While non-GAAP reports may show more accurate figures for companies that experienced unusual one-time transactions, other businesses often list repeated earnings as one-time figures. Even though they appear transparent, non-GAAP figures can create confusion for investors and regulators. International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) U.S. GAAP to Operating (Non-GAAP) Results Reconciliation (Unaudited)
Limitations of GAAPWhile GAAP accounting strives to alleviate incidents of inaccurate reporting, it is by no means comprehensive. Companies can still suffer from issues beyond the scope of GAAP depending on their size, business categorization, location, and global presence. Diverse Types of CompaniesGAAP may seem to take a "one-size-fits-all" approach to financial reporting that does not adequately address issues faced by distinct industries. For example, state and local governments may struggle with implementing GAAP due to their unique environments. New GAAP hierarchy proposals may better accommodate these government entities. Small businesses may also struggle with implementing GAAP. These standards may be too complex for their accounting needs, and hiring personnel to create GAAP definition reports can be expensive. As a result, the FASB works with the Private Company Council to update GAAP with private company exceptions and alternatives. TimeframeDue to the thorough standards-setting process of the GAAP policy boards, it can take months or even years to finalize a new standard. These wait times may not work to the advantage of companies complying with GAAP, as pending decisions can affect their reports. Global vs. DomesticGAAP is not the international accounting standard, which is a developing challenge as businesses become more globalized. The International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) is the most common set of principles outside the United States. IFRS is used in the European Union, Australia, Canada, Japan, India, and Singapore.
Find a program that meets your affordability, flexibility, and education needs through an accredited, online school. What Is IFRS?The IFRS began almost 50 years ago under a different name. Starting in 1973, the board of the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) released a series of International Accounting Standards (IAS) to create more uniform accounting methods throughout the European Union. In 2001, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) replaced the IASC and began publishing the IFRS, which is now used in 166 jurisdictions. This count includes the United States, even though the country has not fully conformed to the IFRS. While the United States does not require IFRS, over 500 international SEC registrants follow these standards. Domestic public companies must use GAAP exclusively. Since the U.S. does not fully comply with IFRS, global companies face challenges when creating financial statements. Even though the FASB and IASB created the Norwalk Agreement in 2002, which promised to merge their unique set of accounting standards, they have made minimal progress. In an effort to move towards unification, the FASB aids in the development of IFRS. What's the Difference Between IFRS and U.S. GAAP?The FASB and IASB want to merge their standards because they share the goal of pursuing accounting integrity. While each financial reporting framework aims to provide uniform procedures and principles to accountants, there are notable differences between them. The main distinction appears in their overall organization. U.S. GAAP prioritizes rules and detailed guidelines, while the IFRS provides general principles to follow. Accountants following the IFRS may interpret the standards differently, leading to added explanatory documents. However, businesses that use GAAP may feel confined by the lengthy rules. With such a prominent difference in approach, dozens of other discrepancies surface throughout the standards. The chart below includes only a couple of the variations that may affect how a business reports its financial information.
Further ReadingThese investor reports from major publicly traded companies provide high-level examples of financial filings that follow GAAP:
Frequently Asked Questions About GAAPThe 10 generally accepted accounting principles include the following: - Principle of Regularity- Principle of Consistency- Principle of Sincerity- Principle of Permanence of Method- Principle of Non-Compensation- Principle of Prudence- Principle of Continuity- Principle of Periodicity- Principle of Full Disclosure- Principle of Utmost Good Faith Governments and public companies abide by these accounting principles to ensure all documents present consistent, accurate, and clear reports. GAAP results in straightforward and understandable financial reports that investors and regulators can easily use to assess a business's financial standing. The importance of GAAP lies in the uniformity, comparability, and transparency of financial documents. Without these standards and practices, businesses could publish their reports differently, creating discrepancies, confusion, and potential opportunities for fraud. The GAAP standards cover financial reporting as a whole. For example, GAAP stipulates how to file income statements, what financial periods to include, and how to report cash flow. Not all companies need to follow GAAP. Only regulated and publicly traded businesses must adhere to GAAP. However, about one third of private companies choose to comply with these standards to provide transparency. Reviewed by: |