Where was the Ming Dynasty located

Learning Objective

  • Describe the origins and rise of the Ming dynasty

Key Points

  • The Ming dynasty was the ruling dynasty of China for 276 years (1368–1644) following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty.
  • Explanations for the demise of the Yuan include institutionalized ethnic discrimination against Han Chinese that stirred resentment and rebellion, overtaxation of areas hard-hit by inflation, and massive flooding of the Yellow River caused by the abandonment of irrigation projects.
  • These issues led to a popular revolt called the Red Turban Rebellion, led in part by a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang.
  • With the Yuan dynasty crumbling, competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to establish a new dynasty, which Zhu did in 1368 after defeating his rivals in the largest naval battle in history and marching toward Beijing, the capital of the Yuan, causing Yuan leaders to flee.

A Buddhist secret society associated with the Red Turban Rebellion.

Zhu Yuanzhang

A poor peasant who rose through the ranks of a rebel army and later founded the Ming dynasty.

The Ming dynasty (January 23, 1368–April 25, 1644), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China founded by the peasant rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang (known posthumously as Emperor Taizu). It succeeded the Yuan dynasty and preceded the short-lived Shun dynasty, which was in turn succeeded by the Qing dynasty. At its height, the Ming dynasty had a population of at least 160 million people, but some assert that the population could actually have been as large as 200 million.

Ming rule saw the construction of a vast navy and a standing army of one million troops. Although private maritime trade and official tribute missions from China had taken place in previous dynasties, the size of the tributary fleet under the Muslim eunuch admiral Zheng He in the 15th century surpassed all others in grandeur. There were enormous construction projects, including the restoration of the Grand Canal, the restoration of the Great Wall as it is seen today, and the establishment of the Forbidden City in Beijing during the first quarter of the 15th century. The Ming dynasty is, for many reasons, generally known as a period of stable, effective government. It is seen as the most secure and unchallenged ruling house that China had known up until that time. Its institutions were generally preserved by the following Qing dynasty. Civil service dominated government to an unprecedented degree at this time. During the Ming dynasty, the territory of China expanded (and in some cases also retracted) greatly. For a brief period during the dynasty northern Vietnam was included in Ming territory. Other important developments included the moving of the capital from Nanjing to Beijing.

The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty. Alongside institutionalized ethnic discrimination against Han Chinese that stirred resentment and rebellion, other explanations for the Yuan’s demise included overtaxing areas hard-hit by crop failure, inflation, and massive flooding of the Yellow River caused by abandonment of irrigation projects. Consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dikes of the Yellow River.

A number of Han Chinese groups revolted, including the Red Turbans in 1351. Zhu Yuanzhang was a penniless peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352, but soon gained a reputation after marrying the foster daughter of a rebel commander.

Zhu was a born into a desperately poor tenant farmer family in Zhongli Village in the Huai River plain, which is in present-day Fengyang, Anhui Province. When he was sixteen, the Huai River broke its banks and flooded the lands where his family lived. Subsequently, a plague killed his entire family, except one of his brothers. He buried them by wrapping them in white clothes. Destitute, Zhu accepted a suggestion to take up a pledge made by his late father and became a novice monk at the Huangjue Temple, a local Buddhist monastery. He did not remain there for long, as the monastery ran short of funds and he was forced to leave. For the next few years, Zhu led the life of a wandering beggar and personally experienced and saw the hardships of the common people. After about three years, he returned to the monastery and stayed there until he was around twenty-four years old. He learned to read and write during the time he spent with the Buddhist monks.

The monastery where Zhu lived was eventually destroyed by an army that was suppressing a local rebellion. In 1352, Zhu joined one of the many insurgent forces that had risen in rebellion against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. He rose rapidly through the ranks and became a commander. His rebel force later joined the Red Turbans, a millenarian sect related to the White Lotus Society, and one that followed cultural and religious traditions of Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and other religions. Widely seen as a defender of Confucianism and neo-Confucianism among the predominantly Han Chinese population in China, Zhu emerged as a leader of the rebels that were struggling to overthrow the Yuan dynasty.

In 1356 Zhu’s rebel force captured the city of Nanjing, which he would later establish as the capital of the Ming dynasty. Zhu enlisted the aid of many able advisors, including the artillery specialists Jiao Yu and Liu Bowen.

Zhu cemented his power in the south by eliminating his arch rival, rebel leader Chen Youliang, in the Battle of Lake Poyang in 1363. This battle was—in terms of personnel—one of the largest naval battles in history. After the dynastic head of the Red Turbans suspiciously died in 1367 while a guest of Zhu, Zhu made his imperial ambitions known by sending an army toward the Yuan capital in 1368. The last Yuan emperor fled north into Mongolia and Zhu declared the founding of the Ming dynasty after razing the Yuan palaces in Dadu (present-day Beijing) to the ground.

Where was the Ming Dynasty located

Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty. Zhu Yuanzhang, later Hongwu Emperor, was the founder and first emperor of China’s Ming dynasty. Born a poor peasant, he later rose through the ranks of a rebel army and eventually overthrew the Yuan leaders and established the Ming dynasty.

Instead of following the traditional way of naming a dynasty after the first ruler’s home district, Zhu Yuanzhang’s choice of “Ming,” or “Brilliant,” for his dynasty followed a Mongol precedent of choosing an uplifting title. Zhu Yuanzhang also took “Hongwu,” or “Vastly Martial,”‘ as his reign title. Although the White Lotus had instigated his rise to power, the emperor later denied that he had ever been a member of the organization, and suppressed the religious movement after he became emperor.

Zhu Yuanzhang drew on both past institutions and new approaches in order to create jiaohua (civilization) as an organic Chinese governing process. This included building schools at all levels and increasing study of the classics as well as books on morality. There was also a distribution of Neo-Confucian ritual manuals and a new civil service examination system for recruitment into the bureaucracy.

Sources

The Ming dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644 CE and replaced the Mongol Yuan dynasty which had been in place since the 13th century CE. Despite challenges from abroad and within, the dynasty oversaw an unprecedented growth in China's population and general economic prosperity. The Ming were succeeded by the Qing dynasty (1644-1911 CE).

Notable achievements of Ming China included the construction of the Forbidden City - the imperial residence in Beijing, a blossoming of literature and the arts, the far-flung explorations of Zheng He, and the production of the timeless blue-and-white Ming porcelains. Eventually, though, the same old problems that had beset previous regimes bedevilled the Ming emperors: court factions, infighting, and corruption, along with government overspending and a disenchanted peasantry which fuelled rebellions. As a consequence, the economically, politically (and some would say morally) impoverished Ming could not resist the invasion of the Manchus who established the Qing dynasty from 1644 CE.

Historical Overview

The Ming dynasty was established following the collapse of the Mongol rule of China, known as the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368 CE). The Yuan had been beset by famines, plagues, floods, widespread banditry, and peasant uprisings. The Mongol rulers also squabbled amongst themselves for power and failed to quash numerous rebellions, including that perpetrated by a group known as the Red Turban Movement led by a peasant called Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1398 CE). The Red Turban Movement, an offshoot of the radical Buddhist White Lotus Movement and initially reacting against forced labour on government construction projects, was most active in northern China, and Zhu took over their leadership in 1355 CE. Zhu also replaced the Red Turban's traditional policy aim of reinstating the old Song dynasty (960-1279 CE) with his own personal ambitions to rule and gained wider support by ditching the anti-Confucian policies which had alienated the educated classes. Alone amongst the many rebel leaders of the period, Zhu understood that to establish a stable government he needed administrators not just warriors out for loot.

Zhu Yuanzhang's first major coup had been the capture of Nanjing in 1356 CE.

Zhu Yuanzhang's first major coup had been the capture of Nanjing in 1356 CE. Zhu's successes continued, and he defeated his two main rival rebel leaders and their armies, first Chen Youliang at the battle of Poyang Lake (1363 CE) and then Zhang Shicheng in 1367 CE. When Han Lin'er died - he who had claimed to be the rightful heir to the line of Song emperors - Zhu was left the most powerful leader in China, and he declared himself emperor in January 1368 CE. Zhu would take the reign name Hongwu (meaning 'abundantly marital') and the dynasty he founded Ming (meaning 'bright' or 'light'). The Hongwu Emperor (aka Ming Taizu) would reign until 1398 CE, and his successors continued his efforts to unify China through a strong centralised government and so consolidate the Ming dynasty's grip on power. A new and draconian law code was compiled (the Da Ming lü or Grand Pronouncements); dissenting officials were ruthlessly punished or executed; the Secretariat, which had acted as a bureaucratic limit on an emperor's power, was abolished; land and tax obligations were meticulously registered; provincial governments were reorganised with imperial family members placed at their heads; hereditary military service was imposed on the peasantry in threatened regions; international trade was curbed as all things foreign were considered a threat to the regime; and the old tribute system required of neighbouring states was revived.

Where was the Ming Dynasty located

In the early 15th century CE the Mongols experienced a resurgence on China's borders and so Emperor Yongle (aka Chengzu, r. 1403-1424 CE, the second son of Hongwu who had taken the throne after a three-year civil war) moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing in 1421 CE to be better placed to deal with any foreign threat. At huge expense, Beijing was enlarged and surrounded by a 10-metre high circuit wall measuring some 15 kilometres in total length. Such was the city's need for food, the Grand Canal was deepened and widened so that grain ships could easily reach the capital. The Great Wall of China was also repaired to better defend the northern frontier. The Ming, though, would greatly benefit from the divisions within the Mongol state - generally split into six competing groups which limited attacks to sporadic and half-hearted invasions rather than a concerted effort to restore China to the position it found itself under the Yuan. The Mongols did briefly besiege Beijing in 1449 CE but the city stood firm and the invaders withdrew back to the steppe.

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The stability of the Ming regime and agricultural reforms allowed significant economic growth and an increase in international trade (now promoted again), especially from the 16th century CE. The emperors were initially a little old-fashioned in their trade policies, insisting that certain countries only use certain ports at certain times, but eventually these rules were relaxed, and East Asia became a melting pot of trading neighbours as well as attracting the Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese. Vast quantities of silver, in particular, came into China via Manila from European-controlled Peru and Mexico. In 1557 CE the Portuguese were even permitted a trading base of their own at Portguese Macao. This opening up of trade also helped deal with the rampant piracy that had been plaguing Chinese waters, now that the Ming invested in a naval fleet.

There were brand new products coming in from the New World, exotica like sweet potatoes, maize, tomatoes, peanuts and tobacco, some of which would be cultivated in areas of China not suitable for homegrown crops, thus greatly expanding food production and so, in turn, the population. Over the course of the dynasty's reign, the population of China would rise from 60-80 million to 150-200 million. As urban centres grew so women amongst the wealthier classes began to enjoy more freedom than previously. They were able to own businesses in their own right, trade as merchants, and make an independent living as an artist or dancer. Conversely, changes in inheritance laws meant women's right went backwards in that area. Widows, for example, could no longer inherit their husband's land and they were expected not to remarry.

Where was the Ming Dynasty located

Map of the Ming Dynasty Territory

The economic prosperity in Ming China would, in turn, create a boom in the arts as a richer class of gentry developed who had money to spend and a great desire to show off their appreciation of fine art to any visitors to their homes. Aesthetic tastes were not limited to the classical arts either as gardens became a popular way for the well-off to entertain guests and display one's culture. The walled gardens of Suzhou became particularly famous where specially chosen rocks, tended pine trees and bamboo, pavilions, and walkways were all arranged to create a harmonious imitation of the scenes seen in landscape paintings by such renowned artists as Shen Zhou (1427-1509 CE) and Dong Qichang (1555-1636 CE).

The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng on seven far-flung diplomatic voyages between 1405 & 1433 CE.

The Ming dynasty, despite its political success in the first half of the reign, eventually began to suffer the age-old problems that had beset every other regime in China through the ages. Intrigues perpetrated by the court eunuchs; abuses of power, and especially executions of those deemed guilty and their extended families, all usually carried out on a whim; a long line of talentless, ineffective, and often erratic rulers who spent more than they should have on grandiose building projects; factional fighting between ruling families; the ballooning of a parallel eunuch and civil service apparatus with each branch despising the other; and peasant revolts against incessant taxes and the harsh rule of often distant landowners all took their toll and weakened the Ming emperors' hold on power.

The dynasty was already in decline in the 16th century CE under Emperor Wanli (r. 1573-1620 CE), especially when he withdrew from court affairs in 1582 CE following the death of his talented Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng, who had, more or less single-handedly, made the country's economic apparatus much more efficient and corruption-free. The power vacuum was willingly filled by the court eunuchs, and the economy took a nose dive following several hugely expensive wars against the Mongols and Japanese in Korea. In the 1620s CE a drop in average temperatures seriously affected crops, on top of which there was a wave of floods, then droughts, and widespread famine as a consequence.

Where was the Ming Dynasty located

Watchtower at the Great Wall of China

In 1644 CE a rebel army led by Li Zicheng (1605-1645 CE) attacked Beijing and, entering the city on 15 April, the last Ming emperor, Chongzhen (r. 1628-1644 CE), hanged himself rather than be captured. On hearing the news of the capital's fall, the army commander Wu Sangui, stationed at Liaodong in north-east China, decided to allow a Manchu army - which had already fought Ming forces on several occasions in the past and was just then threatening to invade again - into China unimpeded in the hope they would put down the rebellion. As it turned out, despite some pockets of resistance from Ming loyalists, the Manchus established their own dynasty, the Qing dynasty and Li Zicheng was killed by peasants in 1645 CE.

The Forbidden City

One of the lasting contributions to Chinese history made by the Ming emperors was the building of the Forbidden City in Beijing. Known in Chinese as Zijincheng ('Purple Forbidden City') and begun by the Yongle emperor from 1407 CE, the complex was built as the imperial residence. The buildings were made of painted red wood and yellow ceramic roof tiles and surrounded by a high wall. Used also by the emperors of the Qing dynasty, the complex was continuously extended and restored until reaching its present impressive spread of some 7.2 square kilometres.

The buildings and their thousands of rooms are all carefully laid out in a plan which reflects the traditional Chinese view of the world. At the heart of the complex, on the most elevated site, is the Hall of Supreme Harmony, where imperial receptions were held. Other halls spread outwards from this central point, all built along a north-south axis. The emperor himself and all-male attendants lived in buildings on the eastern side while women lived on the western side of the complex. The Forbidden City also included government offices, all arranged strictly according to the rank of imperial officials. Needless to say, the forbidden aspect derives from the controlled access to it, with only officials of certain ranks and invited ambassadors being permitted within its walls. Today the complex contains the largest collection of imperial treasures and artworks in China.

Zheng He

One of the enduring symbols of the Ming dynasty's eagerness to extend international relations is Zheng He (1371-1433 CE), widely regarded as China's greatest ever explorer. Born in Yunnan in southern China, Zheng was a eunuch Muslim who rose to become an admiral in the imperial fleet. The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng on seven diplomatic voyages between 1405 and 1433 CE, with each voyage involving several hundred ships. Zheng would sail along established routes to the coast of India, the Persian Gulf, and the east coast of Africa, but many of his final destinations were new points of contact for the Chinese.

Zheng He's travels brought Southeast Asia into the sphere of the Chinese tribute system, but it was not successful in widening the system even further. Zheng did return to China with shiploads of valuable goods, although these did not generally meet the value of those goods shipped out in the first place (for example, silk, tea, and porcelain) and which were intended to woo foreign rulers into sending ambassadors to the imperial court in Beijing, principally to legitimise Yongle's rule and perpetuate the idea that the Chinese emperor was the greatest ruler on earth. Less tangible than wealth, Zheng certainly brought back plenty of knowledge of foreign lands and customs, and he did ship back such exotica as giraffes, gems, and spices.

Where was the Ming Dynasty located

The Seven Voyages of Zheng He

Religion & Philosophy

Neo-Confucianism continued to dominate in Ming China, as it had under the Song. The Chinese literati did generally become more questioning during the Ming, with such noted thinkers as Wang Yangming (1472-1529 CE) who, influenced by Chan Buddhism, proposed radical new ideas. Wang believed that all people, even commoners, could develop their own innate knowledge of what is right through contemplation (as opposed to merely studying Confucian texts) and this would lead to the performing of actions which are right. Just what is 'right', of course, was open to debate, and the later thinkers of the Qing dynasty would cite such subjectivity as a reason for the moral decline they saw in later Ming times.

Buddhism, Taoism, and local cults continued to appeal to many, although they were less popular than Confucianism, even if Buddhist monasteries and monks grew in number during the supportive years of Hongwu's reign - the first emperor having spent a period of his childhood in a Buddhist monastery. One development in Buddhism during the Ming was the doctrine that one could arrive at Nirvana by doing good deeds and particular deeds were worth certain points. When one reached a total of 10,000 points, Nirvana would be reached. In general, as with Confucianism, there was thus a questioning of orthodoxy in all ways of thinking, which resulted in often radical new approaches, but these would have really only been seen, debated or followed by a minority of the scholarly class. These intellectuals had a forum for their views in the many independent academies which sprang up in the late Ming period, most important of which was the Donglin Academy, founded in 1604 CE and which survived into the 19th century CE.

Where was the Ming Dynasty located

Ming Civil Servant Jiang Shunfu

Cultural Achievements

In 1370 CE the Ming reintroduced the traditional civil service examination system, which had been an essential path of social progression in pre-Mongol China and which would continue right into the 20th century CE. The Ming introduced a geographical quota system so that the richer regions did not, as was previously the case, dominate all the positions in the civil service. Meanwhile, the increase in the number of schools meant children with parents who could not afford private tuition could receive the essential education necessary to prepare for the exams. Success in these examinations required the study of Chinese classic literature which saw a revival in Confucianism after the Yuan.

There were several developments in Chinese literature in Ming China. Thanks to better printing presses, more books were printed than ever before, volumes were illustrated using woodblock prints to make them more attractive, and literature was itself made more accessible by being written in the vernacular language. There were books on how to live a good life, handbooks of etiquette, commentaries on classic texts, military treatises, notes for exam preparation, collections of woodblock prints, anthologies of poems, erotic works, and of course, fiction. Shuihuzhuan (about a group of well-meaning bandits), Xiyouji (about a priest who journeys to India to collect Buddhist scriptures), and Jin Ping Mei (a risqué satire of Ming government examining the life of a wealthy merchant) were all famous novels written in the vernacular during the Ming dynasty. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo yanyi), written in the 14th or 15th century CE and often attributed to Luo Guanzhong, remains to this day one of the most popular of all Chinese novels with its fantastic tales interwoven with historical figures during the fall of the Han dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms Period.

Scripts of the plays which travelling troupes performed were another popular source of reading. One of the most popular of all plays was The Peony Pavilion by Tang Xianzu (1550-1616 CE). Written in 1598 CE, it tells the story of a young woman who falls in love with a young man she only meets in dreams. The girl dies of loneliness and buries a portrait of herself in her garden. The young man of the dream then buys the house and finds the portrait, falls in love, and brings the girl back to life through the strength of his affections.

Where was the Ming Dynasty located

Ming Dynasty Blue-and-White Porcelain

The Yongle Dadian was created during the reign of Emperor Yongle, a massive encyclopedia of all important Chinese literary works that had survived up to that point. The work, taking up over 22,000 chapters, was too large to be printed and, unfortunately, most of the original was lost in the strife at the end of Ming dynasty and that of a copy in a fire during the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901 CE). Around 800 chapters of the encyclopedia do still exist in various libraries outside of China.

Ming Blue-and-White Porcelain

Finally, space must be allowed for the blue-and-white porcelain wares which have come to symbolise the Ming dynasty for many people today. Although artists of the Ming dynasty produced a wide range of pottery, it is this fine 'china' which was exported with unprecedented success. Actually made in earlier dynasties but perfected to new levels of craftsmanship under the Ming, porcelain - a hard, pure white, and translucent ceramic - was made at such noted centres as Jingdezhen and sold across China and to an appreciative world market which had not yet learnt the secret of making it. Porcelain was not just used to make vases and crockery but was shaped into all manner of goods from writing desk paraphernalia to bird feeders. The classic shapes and cobalt blue designs, which often used foliage motifs combined with landscape scenes inspired by scroll paintings, would be imitated around the world from Japan to Britain.


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Where was the Ming Dynasty located

Temple du ciel, Cité interdite

La Dynastie Ming gouverna la Chine de 1368 à 1644, remplaçant la dynastie mongole Yuan qui était en place depuis le 13ème siècle. Malgré des défis intérieurs et extérieurs, la dynastie devait voir une croissance sans précédent de la population chinoise et une prospérité économique générale. Parmi ses réalisations notables, citons la construction de la Cité Interdite - la résidence impériale de Beijing (Pékin) - un épanouissement de la littérature et des arts, les explorations lointaines de Zheng He, et la production des porcelaines Ming bleu et blanc intemporelles. Finalement cependant, les mêmes vieux problèmes qui avaient affecté les régimes précédents touchèrent aussi les empereurs Ming: les factions de la cour, les luttes intestines et la corruption, les dépenses excessives du gouvernement et un mécontentement de la paysannerie qui alimentait les révoltes. En conséquence, les Ming appauvris économiquement, politiquement (et certains diraient même moralement) ne purent pas résister à l'invasion des Mandchous qui établirent la dynastie Qing à partir de 1644.

Aperçu Historique

La dynastie Ming fut établie à la suite de l'effondrement de la domination mongole de la Chine, sous la Dynastie Yuan (1271-1368). Les Yuan avaient été frappés par des famines, des épidémies, des inondations, un banditisme généralisé et des soulèvements paysans. Les dirigeants mongols se disputèrent aussi le pouvoir, et ne réussirent pas à écraser de nombreuses rébellions, y compris celle perpétrée par le groupe des Turbans Rouges, dirigé par un paysan appelé Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1398). Le Mouvement des Turbans Rouges, une ramification du Mouvement Bouddhiste radical du Lotus Blanc, qui réagissait initialement contre le travail forcé sur les projets de construction du gouvernement, était surtout actif dans le nord de la Chine. Zhu reprit sa direction en 1355, et remplaça l'objectif politique traditionnel des Turbans Rouges, qui était de rétablir l'ancienne dynastie Song (960-1279), par son ambition personnelle de gouverner. Il réussit à obtenir un large soutien en abandonnant les politiques anti-confucéennes qui avaient aliéné les classes éduquées. Seul parmi les nombreux chefs rebelles de l'époque, Zhu comprit que pour établir un gouvernement stable, il avait besoin d'administrateurs, et pas seulement de guerriers à la recherche de butin.

LE PREMIER COUP MAJEUR DE ZHU YUANZHANG FUT LA PRISE DE NANKIN EN 1356.

Le premier coup majeur de Zhu Yuanzhang fut la prise de Nankin (Nanjing, Jiangsu) en 1356. Les succès de Zhu continuèrent, il vainquit ses deux principaux chefs rebelles rivaux et leurs armées, d'abord Chen Youliang à la bataille du lac Poyang, Jiangxi (1363), puis Zhang Shicheng en 1367. À la mort de Han Lin'er - qui avait prétendu être l'héritier légitime de la lignée des Song - Zhu demeura le dirigeant le plus puissant de Chine. Il se déclara empereur en janvier 1368 sous le nom de règne de Hongwu (signifiant 'abondamment marital') et fonda la Dynastie Ming ('brillant'). L'Empereur Hongwu (ou Ming Taizu) devait régner jusqu'en 1398, et ses successeurs continuèrent ses efforts pour unifier la Chine grâce à un gouvernement centralisé fort, et consolidèrent ainsi l'emprise de la dynastie Ming. Un nouveau code de droit draconien fut élaboré (le Da Ming lü ou 'Grandes Déclarations'), les fonctionnaires dissidents furent impitoyablement punis ou exécutés, le Secrétariat, qui avait agi comme une limite bureaucratique au pouvoir impérial fut aboli, les obligations foncières et fiscales furent méticuleusement enregistrées, les gouvernements provinciaux furent réorganisés avec des membres de la famille impériale placés à leur tête, et le service militaire héréditaire fut imposé à la paysannerie dans les régions menacées. Le commerce international fut limité, car tout ce qui était étranger était considéré comme une menace pour le régime, et l'ancien système de tribut exigé des états voisins fut relancé.

Where was the Ming Dynasty located

Au début du 15ème siècle, les Mongols resurgirent aux frontières de la Chine, et ainsi l'Empereur Yongle (ou Chengzu, règne 1403-1424), deuxième fils de Hongwu, monté au trône après une guerre civile de trois ans, déplaça la capitale de Nanjing à Beijing (Pékin) en 1421 pour être mieux placé pour faire face à toute menace étrangère. Beijing fut agrandie à grands frais et entourée d'un mur d'enceinte de 10 mètres de haut mesurant environ 15 kilomètres de longueur totale. Le besoin d'approvisionnement en nourriture de la ville était tel que le Grand Canal fut approfondi et élargi pour que les navires céréaliers puissent facilement atteindre la capitale. La Grande Muraille de Chine fut également réparée pour mieux défendre la frontière nord. Les Ming cependant bénéficièrent grandement des divisions au sein de l'État Mongol. Celui-ci se trouvait généralement scindé en six groupes concurrents, ce qui limitait les attaques à des invasions sporadiques et hésitantes plutôt que de permettre un effort concerté pour restaurer la situation de la Chine comme elle était sous les Yuan. Les Mongols assiégèrent encore brièvement Beijing en 1449, mais la ville résista, et les envahisseurs se retirèrent dans la steppe.

La stabilité du régime Ming et les réformes agricoles permirent une croissance économique significative et un accroissement du commerce international, maintenant à nouveau promu, en particulier à partir du 16ème siècle. Les empereurs étaient au départ un peu rétrogrades dans leurs politiques commerciales, imposant que certains pays n'utilisent que certains ports à certains moments, mais finalement ces règles furent assouplies, et l'Asie de l'Est devint un foyer de commerce de voisinage, tout en attirant les Espagnols, les Néerlandais et les Portugais. De grandes quantités d'argent-métal, en particulier, affluèrent en Chine via Manille, en provenance du Pérou et du Mexique sous contrôle européen. En 1557, les Portugais furent même autorisés à avoir leur propre base commerciale à Macao. Maintenant que les Ming avaient investi dans une flotte navale, cette ouverture du commerce aida également à faire la chasse à la piraterie rampante qui sévissait dans les eaux chinoises.

De tout nouveaux produits en provenance du Nouveau Monde arrivèrent, des productions exotiques comme les patates douces, le maïs, les tomates, les arachides et le tabac. Certains d'entre eux devaient être cultivés dans des régions de Chine ne convenant pas aux cultures locales, augmentant ainsi considérablement la production alimentaire, et donc aussi, la population. Au cours du règne de la dynastie, la population chinoise passa de 60-80 millions à 150-200 millions d'habitants. À mesure que les centres urbains se développaient, les femmes des classes les plus riches commencèrent à jouir de plus de liberté. Elles purent posséder des entreprises en propre, faire du commerce comme les marchands, et mener une vie indépendante en tant qu'artistes ou danseuses. À l'inverse, les modifications des lois sur l'héritage entraînèrent un recul du droit des femmes dans ce domaine. Les veuves, par exemple, ne pouvaient plus hériter de la terre de leur mari, et on ne souhaitait pas les voir se remarier.

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Where was the Ming Dynasty located

Carte du territoire de la dynastie Ming

La prospérité économique de la Chine Ming créa, par conséquent, un essor des arts alors que se développait une classe noble plus riche, qui avait de l'argent à dépenser et un grand désir de montrer son appréciation des beaux-arts aux visiteurs de leurs maisons. Les goûts esthétiques ne se limitaient pas aux arts classiques, les jardins devinrent un moyen populaire pour les plus aisés de divertir les invités et d'exposer leur culture. Les jardins clos de Suzhou, où des roches spécialement choisies, des pins et des bambous taillés, des pavillons et des allées étaient disposés pour créer une imitation harmonieuse des scènes des peintures de paysages d'artistes renommés tels que Shen Zhou (1427-1509) et Dong Qichang (1555-1636), devinrent particulièrement célèbres.

L'EMPEREUR YONGLE ENVOYA ZHENG HE faire SEPT longs VOYAGES DIPLOMATIQUES ENTRE 1405 ET 1433.

La Dynastie Ming, en dépit de son succès politique dans la première moitié du règne, commença finalement à souffrir des mêmes problèmes que ceux qui avaient frappé tous les autres régimes en Chine dans le passé. Intrigues perpétrées par les eunuques de la cour, abus de pouvoir, en particulier exécutions de personnes arbitrairement considérées coupables et de leurs familles élargies, longue lignée de dirigeants sans talent, inefficaces et souvent erratiques, qui dépensaient plus qu'ils n'auraient dû sur des projets de construction grandioses, combats entre factions entre familles dirigeantes, gonflement d'un appareil parallèle d'eunuques et de fonction publique, chaque branche méprisant l'autre, révoltes paysannes contre des impôts incessants et domination dure de propriétaires souvent éloignés de leurs terres, tout cela fit des ravages et affaiblit la maîtrise des empereurs Ming sur le pouvoir.

La dynastie était déjà en déclin sous l'empereur Wanli (r. 1573-1620), en particulier lorsqu'il se retira des affaires de la cour en 1582, après la mort de son talentueux Grand Secrétaire Zhang Juzheng, qui avait, plus ou moins à lui seul, rendu l'appareil économique du pays beaucoup plus efficace et exempt de corruption. Le vide du pouvoir fut volontairement comblé par les eunuques de la cour, et l'économie plongea à la suite de plusieurs guerres extrêmement coûteuses contre les Mongols et les Japonais en Corée. Dans les années 1620, une baisse des températures moyennes, une vague d'inondations puis des sécheresses, affectèrent gravement les cultures, répandant ainsi la famine.

Where was the Ming Dynasty located

Tour de guet de la Grande Muraille de Chine

En 1644, une armée rebelle dirigée par Li Zicheng (1605-1645) attaqua Beijing et, à son entrée dans la ville le 15 avril, le dernier empereur Ming, Chongzhen (r. 1628-1644), préféra se pendre plutôt que d'être capturé. En apprenant la nouvelle de la chute de la capitale, le commandant de l'armée Wu Sangui, en poste à Liaodong (Liaoning), dans le nord-est de la Chine, décida d'autoriser une armée mandchoue - qui avait déjà combattu les forces Ming à plusieurs reprises dans le passé et menaçait d'envahir à nouveau - à entrer en Chine sans entrave dans l'espoir qu'elle materaient la rébellion. En fait, malgré quelques poches de résistance loyalistes Ming, les Mandchous établirent leur propre dynastie, la Dynastie Qing (1644-1911) et Li Zicheng a fut tué par des paysans en 1645.

La Cité Interdite

L'une des contributions durables des empereurs Ming à l'histoire chinoise fut la construction de la Cité Interdite à Beijing. Connu en chinois comme Zijincheng ('Cité Interdite Pourpre') et commencé par l'empereur Yongle à partir de 1407, le complexe fut construit comme une résidence impériale. Les bâtiments étaient faits de bois peint en rouge avec des toits de tuiles en céramique jaune, et entourés d'un haut mur. Utilisé également par les empereurs de la Dynastie Qing, le complexe fut continuellement agrandi et restauré jusqu'à atteindre son impressionnante étendue actuelle de 7,2 kilomètres carrés.

Les bâtiments et leurs milliers de pièces sont tous soigneusement aménagés, avec un plan qui reflète la vision traditionnelle chinoise du monde. Au cœur du complexe, sur le site le plus élevé, se trouve le Pavillon de l'Harmonie Suprême, où se tenaient les réceptions impériales. D'autres pavillons s'étendent vers l'extérieur à partir de ce point central, tous construits selon un axe nord-sud. L'empereur lui-même et tous les hommes vivaient dans les bâtiments du côté est tandis que les femmes vivaient du côté ouest du complexe. La Cité Interdite comprenait également des bureaux gouvernementaux, tous agencés strictement en fonction du rang des fonctionnaires. Inutile de dire que la mention 'Interdite' découle de l'accès contrôlé au complexe, seuls les fonctionnaires de certains grades et les ambassadeurs invités étant autorisés à l'intérieur de ses murs. Aujourd'hui, le complexe contient la plus grande collection de trésors impériaux et d'œuvres d'art en Chine.

Zheng He

L'un des images durables de la volonté de la dynastie Ming d'étendre les relations internationales est Zheng He (1371-1433), communément considéré comme le plus grand explorateur de la Chine. Né au Yunnan, dans le sud de la Chine, Zheng était un eunuque musulman, devenu amiral dans la flotte impériale. L'Empereur Yongle envoya Zheng faire sept longs voyages diplomatiques entre 1405 et 1433, chaque voyage impliquant plusieurs centaines de navires. Zheng navigua le long des routes établies vers la côte de l'Inde, le golfe Persique et la côte est de l'Afrique, mais bon nombre de ses destinations finales étaient aussi de nouveaux points de contact pour les Chinois.

Les voyages de Zheng He rallièrent l'Asie de l'Est à la sphère du système de tribut chinois, mais cela ne permit pas d'étendre le système beaucoup plus. Zheng rentra en Chine avec des cargaisons de marchandises précieuses, bien que la valeur de celles-ci ne correspondait généralement pas à celle des marchandises expédiées (par exemple, soie, thé et porcelaine), et qui visaient surtout à courtiser les dirigeants étrangers pour qu'ils envoient des ambassadeurs à la cour impériale de Pékin. Ceci était principalement destiné à légitimer le règne de Yongle et à perpétuer l'idée que l'empereur chinois était le plus grand dirigeant du monde. Moins tangible que la richesse, Zheng rapporta certainement beaucoup de connaissances sur les terres et les coutumes étrangères, et il envoya en Chine des marchandises exotiques tels que des girafes, des pierres précieuses et des épices.

Religion et Philosophie

Le Néo-Confucianisme continuait à dominer sous les Ming, comme il l'avait fait sous les Song. Les lettrés devinrent généralement plus curieux pendant les Ming, avec des penseurs aussi réputés que Wang Yangming (1472-1529) qui, influencé par le Bouddhisme Chan ('méditation silencieuse', Bouddhisme mahayana), proposa de nouvelles idées radicales. Wang pensait que tout le monde, même les gens du peuple, pouvaient développer leur connaissance innée de ce qui est juste par la contemplation (par opposition à la simple étude des textes confucéens), et que cela devait conduire à l'exécution d'actions justes. Ce qui est 'juste', était bien sûr sujet à débat, et les penseurs suivants de la dynastie Qing devaient citer cette subjectivité comme une raison du déclin moral qu'ils virent plus tard.

Le Bouddhisme, le Taoïsme et les cultes locaux continuèrent à faire des adeptes. Ils devinrent cependant moins populaires que le Confucianisme, même si les monastères bouddhistes et les moines se multiplièrent pendant les années favorables du règne de Hongwu, premier empereur ayant passé une période de son enfance dans un monastère bouddhiste. Un développement du Bouddhisme pendant les Ming fut la doctrine selon laquelle on pouvait rejoindre le Nirvana en faisant de bonnes actions, et des actions particulières valaient certains points. Quand on atteignait un total de 10 000 points, le Nirvana était atteint. En général, comme pour le Confucianisme, il y eut donc une remise en cause de l'orthodoxie dans tous les modes de pensée, ce qui aboutit à de nouvelles approches souvent radicales, mais celles-ci ne devaient être vraiment vues, débattues ou suivies que par une minorité de la classe lettrée. Ces intellectuels avaient un forum pour développer leurs points de vue dans les nombreuses académies indépendantes qui virent le jour à la fin de la période Ming, dont la plus importante était l'Académie Donglin, fondée en 1604, et qui survécut jusqu'au 19ème siècle.

Réalisations Culturelles

En 1370, les Ming réintroduisirent le système traditionnel de concours de la fonction publique, qui avait été une voie essentielle de la progression sociale dans la Chine pré-mongole et qui devait se poursuivre jusqu'au 20e siècle. Les Ming introduisirent un système de quotas géographiques afin que les régions les plus riches ne dominent pas tous les postes de la fonction publique, comme c'était le cas avant. Dans le même temps, l'augmentation du nombre d'écoles eut pour résultat que les enfants dont les parents ne pouvaient pas se permettre de payer des cours particuliers pouvaient recevoir l'éducation nécessaire pour se préparer aux examens. La réussite de ces examens nécessitait l'étude de la littérature classique chinoise qui vit un renouveau du Confucianisme après les Yuan.

Il y eut plusieurs développements dans la littérature pendant les Ming. Grâce à de meilleures presses à imprimer, des livres ont pu être produits comme jamais auparavant, ils furent illustrés grâce aux impressions au bloc de bois pour les rendre plus attrayants, et la littérature elle-même fut rendue plus accessible par l'écriture dans la langue vernaculaire. On produisait des livres sur la façon de vivre une bonne vie, des manuels d'étiquette, des commentaires de textes classiques, des traités militaires, des notes de préparation aux examens, des recueils d'impressions au bloc de bois, des anthologies de poèmes, des œuvres érotiques, et bien sûr, de la fiction. Shui hu zhuàn ('Au Bord de l'Eau', à propos d'un groupe de bons bandits), Xi you ji ('Le Voyage vers l'Ouest', à propos d'un moine qui se rend en Inde pour recueillir des écritures bouddhistes) et Jin Ping Mei ('Fleur en Fiole d'Or', une satire osée du gouvernement Ming examinant la vie d'un riche marchand) furent tous - et restent - des romans célèbres. écrits dans la langue vernaculaire sous la Dynastie Ming. Sanguo yanyi, 'Les Trois Royaumes', écrit au 14ème ou 15ème siècle EC, souvent attribué à Luo Guanzhong, reste à ce jour l'un des romans chinois les plus populaires, avec ses contes fantastiques entrecroisés avec des personnages historiques, durant la chute de la Dynastie Han et le début de la Période des Trois Royaumes.

Les textes des pièces de théâtre que les troupes itinérantes interprétaient étaient une autre source de lecture populaire. L'une des pièces les plus populaires de toutes était Le Pavillon aux Pivoines (1550-1616), de Tang Xianzu. Écrit en 1598, il raconte l'histoire d'une jeune femme qui tombe amoureuse d'un jeune homme qu'elle ne rencontre qu'en rêve. La jeune fille meurt de solitude et enterre un portrait d'elle-même dans son jardin. Le jeune homme du rêve achète alors la maison, trouve le portrait, en tombe amoureux et ramène la jeune fille à la vie par la force de son affection.

Le Yongle Dadian, l'Encyclopédie de Yongle, fut créé sous le règne de l'empereur Yongle, c'est un gros recueil de toutes les œuvres littéraires chinoises importantes qui avaient survécu jusqu'à l'époque. L'ouvrage, qui représentait plus de 22 000 chapitres, était trop volumineux pour être imprimé, et malheureusement, la majeure partie de l'original fut perdue dans les conflits de la fin de la Dynastie Ming, et une copie disparut dans un incendie pendant la Révolte des Boxers (1899-1901). Environ 800 chapitres de l'encyclopédie existent encore dans diverses bibliothèques en dehors de la Chine.

Porcelaine Ming Bleu et Blanc

Enfin, il ne faut pas manquer de mentionner la porcelaine bleu et blanc qui symbolise aujourd'hui pour beaucoup la Dynastie Ming. Bien que les artistes de la dynastie Ming aient produit une large gamme de poteries, c'est cette fine porcelaine qui fut exportée avec un succès sans précédent. On la connaissait en fait sous les dynasties précédentes, mais elle fut perfectionnée à des niveaux de savoir-faire élevés sous les Ming. La porcelaine - une céramique dure, blanche pure et translucide - était fabriquée dans des centres aussi réputés que Jingdezhen, et vendue à travers la Chine et à un marché mondial qui l'appéciait et n'avait pas encore appris le secret de sa production. La porcelaine n'était pas seulement utilisée pour fabriquer des vases et de la vaisselle, elle était transformée en toutes sortes de produits, des accessoires de bureau aux mangeoires pour oiseaux. Les formes classiques et les motifs bleu de cobalt, qui faisaient souvent appel à des dessins de feuillage combinés à des scènes de paysage inspirées des peintures sur rouleaux, devaient être imités dans le monde entier, du Japon à l'Europe.