Political factions or parties began to form during the struggle over ratification of the federal Constitution of 1787. Friction between them increased as attention shifted from the creation of a new federal government to the question of how powerful that federal government would be. The Federalists, led by Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton, wanted a strong central government, while the Anti-Federalists, led by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, advocated states’ rights instead of centralized power. Federalists coalesced around the commercial sector of the country while their opponents drew their strength from those favoring an agrarian society. The ensuing partisan battles led George Washington to warn of “the baneful effects of the spirit of party” in his Farewell Address as president of United States.
George Washington, Farewell Address, September 19, 1796
James Madison (1751–1838), an Orange County, Virginia, planter shown in this portrait by Charles Willson Peale (1741–1827), was a strong proponent of a strong central government to replace the Articles of Confederation. Often credited with being the Father of the Constitution of 1787, Madison established the Jeffersonian-Republican Party with Thomas Jefferson and in 1809 succeeded him as president of the United States. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj27
Opponents (Anti-Federalists) and supporters (Federalists) of the new constitution began to coalesce into political factions. In Virginia, Anti-Federalists led by Patrick Henry (1736–1799) defeated James Madisons election to the Senate and forced him into a campaign for the House of Representatives against a strong Anti-Federalist, James Monroe (1758–1831), later the fifth president. The rapid evolution of political parties from factions was an inventive American response to political conflict.
Letter from James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, December 8, 1788. Manuscript. Thomas Jefferson Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (88.00.00) [Digital ID# us0088] Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj10
Although James Madison had opposed early amendments to the Federal Constitution, he hoped to derail the growing political demand for major constitutional changes by offering a bill of rights as a diversion of a tub for a whale, a reference to a story by Jonathan Swift in which a tub is tossed to a whale to keep it from wrecking a boat. In his June 8, 1789, speech Madison favored inserting amending phrases into the body of the Constitution. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj7
Roger Sherman (1721–1793), a congressman from Connecticut, argued in a special congressional committee appointed on July 21, 1789, that any amendments should be appended to the Constitution. On August 19, 1789, the House of Representatives finally adopted Shermans argument that to insert them into the text would be too confusing and voted instead to add the amendments by way of a supplement. This list of proposed amendments in Shermans writing is probably a draft of a report by a committee on which he served. It differs markedly from the amendments finally proposed and sent to the states. As such, it provides valuable insights into the creation of the Bill of Rights.
Roger Sherman. Draft Report of a Special Committee of Congress, ca. July 21, 1789. Manuscript. James Madison Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (81.00.01) [Digital ID#s us0081_1, us0081] Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj2
Despite North Carolinas refusal to ratify the Constitution without the addition of amendments, the states governor, Samuel Johnston (1733–1816), opposed any material Alterations to the Constitution but advocated for a Flourish & Dressing . . . such as a pompous Declaration of Rights. Johnston was one of the many Federalists who supported amendments for personal liberties only as a political tactic to fend off more substantive changes in federal powers.
Letter from Samuel Johnston to James Madison, July 8, 1789. Manuscript. James Madison Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (81.01.00) [Digital ID# us0081_01p1] Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj3 Back to Top
A committee of the House of Representatives appointed by James Madison originally envisioned that amendments on individual rights would be incorporated into the body of the Constitution, not appended as a supplement. This July 28, 1789, committee report presented by John Vining (1758–1802) of Delaware clearly shows the incorporation plan with the rights scattered throughout the Constitution. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj4
Richard Peters (1743–1828), a Pennsylvania assemblyman and former delegate to the Continental Congress, warned James Madison about offering Amendments to the Machine before it is known whether it wants any. Peters, like many supporters of the Constitution, continued to oppose the adoption of a federal bill of rights.
Letter from Richard Peters to James Madison, July 5, 1789. Manuscript. James Madison Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (82.01.00) [Digital ID# us0082_01p1] Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj5
Many strong supporters of the federal Constitution saw no need to add a bill of rights, arguing that individual rights were already protected by the Constitution, common law, and state constitutions. William Maclay (1737–1804), a senator from Pennsylvania reported that the proposed amendments were treated contemptuously by senators, but nevertheless the Senate agreed to consider them. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj6
In this letter to the former French minister to the United States, Marquis de la Luzerne (1741–1791), George Washington reported that despite the “good deal of warmth” that marked the Congressional debates over funding the Revolutionary War debt and the location of the national capital, a compromise had been reached. The federal government would assume all state and federal debts and, after a ten-year stay in Philadelphia, the capital would be located on the Potomac River near Washington’s home at Mount Vernon. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj35 Back to top
“An Act for establishing the temporary and permanent seat of the Government of the United States,” was signed into law on July 16, 1790. After giving cursory consideration to other locations, George Washington selected a site for the seat of government with which he was very familiar—the banks of the Potomac River at the confluence of its Eastern Branch, just above his home at Mount Vernon. Andrew Ellicott (1754–1820), federal surveyor of the District of Columbia, prepared this plan in 1792 of what would become the District of Columbia. The outline of the city’s grid system and the location of the Capitol, the President’s House, and the mall are clearly visible. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj38
Within a decade of deciding to move the new federal capital to the banks of the Potomac River, what became known as “Washington, District of Columbia” began to emerge out of partisan politics and a tidal marsh. The federal city had just begun to take shape when the government moved here in 1800. This engraving provides a view of the waterfront at Georgetown, then a suburb of Washington. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj31
Created by a twenty-year federal charter on February 25, 1791, the Bank of the United States was a private corporation funded by stock sold to the federal government and individuals. The same bank bill also established a mint for issuing uniform currency. The Bank of the United States remained a contentious constitutional and political issue for decades, because opponents feared the centralized power of a national bank and opposed federal corporations.
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Alexander Hamilton played major roles in the creation of the United States. He was an aide-de-camp to George Washington during the Revolution, a member of the Continental Congress in 1782, 1783, and 1788 and the Constitutional Convention in 1787, and the first secretary of the treasury. In 1804 Aaron Burr killed Hamilton in a duel arising from ill-will after Federalist leader Hamilton supported Thomas Jefferson instead of Burr in the disputed election of 1801. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj25
As party lines were drawn in the new federal government, President George Washington tried to pacify the parties by addressing the chief protagonists—Alexander Hamilton, his secretary of the treasury, and Thomas Jefferson, his secretary of state. Although both Hamilton and Jefferson promised to work together, the struggle between the Federalist and Republican parties continued unabated. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj40
In September 1792, James Madison coined the term Republican Party in an essay, A Candid State of Parties, published in the National Gazette of Philadelphia. Although the Jeffersonian-Republican Party drew strength from the Anti-Federalists, no one had more claim to the authorship of the federal Constitution than did Madison, one of the founders of the Jeffersonian-Republican Party. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj13
Faced with British refusal to vacate western frontier forts as well as honor neutral shipping rights, President George Washington sent Supreme Court Chief Justice John Jay (1745–1829) to London in 1794. The resulting treaty, which failed to resolve the issues but prevented a war with Great Britain, was extremely unpopular with the Jeffersonian Republicans. The Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation was quickly labeled “Jay’s Treaty” and became a lightening rod for the political parties and a point of contention between the president and Congress over funds for its implementation. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj32
John Jay (1745–1829), a prominent New York nationalist and former president of the Continental Congress, was among the first to call for a National Convention to replace or revise the Articles of Confederation. Jay was an outspoken advocate for the new Constitution and authored several of the Federalist essays. He served as first chief justice of the United States, 1789–1795. President Washington sent Jay to England in 1794 to negotiate a treaty, which became known as “Jay’s Treaty.”
“His Excellency John Jay, President of Congress & Minister Plenipotentiary from Congress at Madrid” in Portraits of Generals, Ministers, Magistrates, Members of Congress and Others, Who Have Rendered Themselves Illustrious in the Revolution of the United States of North America. London: R. Wilkinson and J. Debret, May 1783. Engraving after drawing by Pierre E. DuSimitièrre. Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (092.02.00) [Digital ID # us0092_02] Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj33 Back to Top
Factional Fighting after Washington's Farewell
Despite George Washington's warning about the dangers of political factions or parties in his Farewell Address to the nation in 1796, the lack of a consensus candidate to assume the presidency only intensified party struggles. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson led partisan political factions or parties into the national elections of 1796. Washington even sought advice from two opposing partisan leaders, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. Displayed here is a draft of Washington's Farewell Address, which Hamilton helped write. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj9
This print captures the heated partisan debates in Congress between Vermont’s Jeffersonian Republican representative, Matthew Lyon (1749–1822), and Connecticut’s Federalist representative, Roger Griswold (1762–1812). They attacked each other with a cane and fireplace tongs on the floor of the House of Representatives on February 15, 1798. Griswold had accused Lyon of cowardice during the American Revolution and Lyon responded by spitting tobacco juice in Griswold’s face. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj30
American women, such as Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis Warren, hoped the American Revolution would lead to more legal and political rights for women. During the post- Revolutionary period, periodicals aimed directly at women emerged. The best known was The Lady's Magazine and Repository of Entertaining Knowledge, founded in Philadelphia in 1792. In this engraving, a copy of A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), the cornerstone feminist document, by Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797) is presented to Lady Liberty.
James Thackera and John Vallance. Liberty. Frontispiece in The Lady's Magazine, and Repository of Entertaining Knowledge. Philadelphia: W. Gibbons, 1792–1793. Marian S. Carson Collection, Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (92.01.00) [Digital ID# us0092_01] Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj17 Back to top
Political Rights of Women Asserted
In a letter to her sister, Elizabeth Smith Shaw Peabody (1750–1815) of Aktinson, New Hampshire, Abigail Adams, wife of John Adams, asserted the rights of women to judge the conduct of government, even if a woman does not hold the Reigns of government.
Letter from Abigail Adams to Elizabeth Smith Shaw Peabody, July 19, 1799. Manuscript. Shaw Family Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (95.01.00) [Digital ID#s us0095_01p1, us0095_01p2] Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj23
Abigail Smith Adams (1744–1818) was an outspoken supporter of women's political, educational, and marital rights and a sage and savvy political advisor to her husband, John Adams, revolutionary leader and second president of the United States. She was the mother of six children and managed the family farm and investments while serving as her husbands chief supporter and advisor. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj28
Abigail Adams (1744–1818), wife of President John Adams, feared that political infighting was endangering the United States, which was engaged in an undeclared naval war with France. Jeffersonian Republicans strongly opposed this “quasi-war” with France, arguing that it strengthened commercial interests in Federalist strongholds. In this letter to her nephew William Shaw (1778–1826), Adams saw hope in the response of the House of Representatives to the president’s address to Congress. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj37
During the administration of President John Adams, the United States was engaged in an ongoing, undeclared naval war with France over neutral shipping rights. French naval vessels and privateers seized hundreds of American vessels, like the frigate Philadelphia pictured here, while the United States struggled to build a navy capable of defending its commerce.
William Birch & Son. “Preparation of War to Defend Commerce” from The City of Philadelphia in the State of Pennsylvania, North America, As it Appeared in the Year 1800. . . . Hand-colored engraving. Springland, Pennsylvania: William Birch and Son, 1800. Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (54.00.05) [Digital ID# us0054p5] Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj36 Back to top
William Cobbett (1763–1835), English soldier turned political pamphleteer, fled London for the United States in 1792. Always a lightning rod for political passion, Cobbett returned to England in 1800 after being successfully sued for journalistic slander and libel in the states. In this later British cartoon series chronicling the colorful life of Cobbett, artist James Gillray depicts the pamphleteer surrounded by hand-written pages, engulfed in flames, and beset by ghosts. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj42
Virginia Congressman John Dawson (1762–1814) declared the Alien and Sedition Act an open violation of the First Amendment to the Constitution. Passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress as America prepared for possible war with France, the Alien and Sedition Acts limited free speech by declaring public criticism of government officials to be seditious libel, punishable by imprisonment and fines. Dawson urged citizens to rely first on the Courts to declare it unconstitutional, as well as to prepare to seek its repeal. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj20 Back to Top
After attacking the administration of Federalist President John Adams in print, Thomas Cooper (1759–1839), political writer and ardent Republican, was tried for seditious libel against Adams before Federalist Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase (1741–1811) in April 1800. Cooper was found guilty, fined, and imprisoned. Republican political leaders strongly criticized Justice Chase, and he was eventually impeached (though not convicted) in 1804, after the Republicans won control of the government.
Thomas Cooper. An Account of the Trial of Thomas Cooper of Northumberland: on a Charge of Libel against the President of the United States. . . . Philadelphia: John Bios, April 1800. Rare Book and Special Collections Division. Library of Congress (94.00.00) [Digital ID# us0094] Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj19
In the midst of the high tensions surrounding a climactic presidential election, Virginia slaves led by Gabriel Prosser (1775–1800) marched on Richmond, Virginia. Governor James Monroe notified Vice President and presidential candidate Thomas Jefferson that the most serious and formidable conspiracy of slaves had been clearly proved. Gabriel’s insurrection led to harsh reprisals, including executions, deportations, and sales of slaves accused of rebellion.
Letter from James Monroe to Thomas Jefferson, September 15, 1800. Manuscript. Thomas Jefferson Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (101.00.00) [Digital ID# us0101] Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj26 Back to Top
Political harmony suffered a serious blow with the death of the nation’s father figure, George Washington, on December 14, 1799. Residents of Ulster County, New York, were provided a detailed account of Washington’s death and the many events eulogizing America’s fallen leader in this January 4, 1800, edition, one of only two copies in existence. This newspaper includes John Marshall’s eulogy delivered before the House of Representatives. Marshall concluded his remarks with the now famous phrase, “First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.” Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj8
This patriotic broadside celebrates the accomplishments of the United States from the adoption of the Federal Constitution through the presidencies of George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison. The Temple of Freedom or the Federal Edifice is supported by pillars of agriculture and commerce, while it boasts of the population of the seventeen states in the union. Bookmark this item: //www.loc.gov/exhibits/creating-the-united-states/formation-of-political-parties.html#obj22 Back to top |
What was the Federalists response to the Republicans criticism of their policies in the 1790s?
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