What amount of carbohydrate is recommended for a 154 pound individual to consume two hours before a competition that is expected to last two and one half hours?

1. Helms E.R., Aragon A.A., Fitschen P.J. Evidence-based recommendations for natural bodybuilding contest preparation: Nutrition and supplementation. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2014;11:20. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-11-20. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

2. Spendlove J., Mitchell L., Gifford J., Hackett D., Slater G., Cobley S., O’Connor H. Dietary Intake of Competitive Bodybuilders. Sports Med. 2015;45:1041–1063. doi: 10.1007/s40279-015-0329-4. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

3. Cho S., Lee H., Kim K. Physical Characteristics and Dietary Patterns of Strength Athletes; Bodybuilders, Weight Lifters. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Korean J. Community Nutr. 2007 12:864–872. Available online: https://www.komci.org/GSResult.php?RID=0106KJCN%2F2007.12.6.864&DT=6 [Google Scholar]

4. Philen R.M., Ortiz D.I., Auerbach S.B., Falk H. Survey of Advertising for Nutritional Supplements in Health and Bodybuilding Magazines. JAMA. 1992;268:1008. doi: 10.1001/jama.1992.03490080082029. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

5. Giampreti A., Lonati D., Locatelli C., Rocchi L., Campailla M.T. Acute neurotoxicity after yohimbine ingestion by a bodybuilder. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Clin. Toxicol. 2009 47:827–829. doi: 10.1080/15563650903081601. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19640235 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

6. Grunewald K.K., Bailey R.S. Commercially Marketed Supplements for Bodybuilding Athletes. Sports Med. 1993;15:90–103. doi: 10.2165/00007256-199315020-00003. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

7. Della Guardia L., Cavallaro M., Cena H. The risks of self-made diets: The case of an amateur bodybuilder. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2015;12:5. doi: 10.1186/s12970-015-0077-8. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

8. Mitchell L., Hackett D., Gifford J., Estermann F., O’Connor H. Do Bodybuilders Use Evidence-Based Nutrition Strategies to Manipulate Physique? [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Sports. 2017 5:76. doi: 10.3390/sports5040076. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5969027/ [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

9. Hackett D.A., Johnson N.A., Chow C.-M. Training Practices and Ergogenic Aids Used by Male Bodybuilders. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2013;27:1609–1617. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e318271272a. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

10. Forbes G.B., Brown M.R., Welle S.L., Lipinski B.A. Deliberate overfeeding in women and men: Energy cost and composition of the weight gain. Br. J. Nutr. 1986;56:1–9. doi: 10.1079/BJN19860080. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

11. Kreider R.B., Klesges R., Harmon K., Ramsey L., Bullen D., Wood L., Almada A., Grindstaff P., Li Y. Effects of Ingesting Supplements Designed to Promote Lean Tissue Accretion on Body Composition during Resistance Training. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 1996;6:234–246. doi: 10.1123/ijsn.6.3.234. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

12. Rozenek R., Ward P., Long S., Garhammer J. Effects of high-calorie supplements on body composition and muscular strength following resistance training. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit. 2002;42:340–347. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

13. Garthe I., Raastad T., Refsnes P.E., Sundgot-Borgen J. Effect of nutritional intervention on body composition and performance in elite athletes. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2013;13:295–303. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2011.643923. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

14. American College og Sports Medicine American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc. 2009 41:687–708. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181915670. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19204579 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

15. Lambert C.P., Frank L.L., Evans W.J., Lambert D.C.P. Macronutrient Considerations for the Sport of Bodybuilding. Sports Med. 2004;34:317–327. doi: 10.2165/00007256-200434050-00004. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

16. Walberg-Rankin J., Edmonds C.E., Gwazdauskas F.C. Diet and Weight Changes of Female Bodybuilders Before and After Competition. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 1993;3:87–102. doi: 10.1123/ijsn.3.1.87. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

17. Lamar-Hildebrand N., Saldanha L., Endres J. Dietary and exercise practices of college-aged female bodybuilders. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1989;89:1308–1310. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

18. Houston M.E. Gaining Weight: The Scientific Basis of Increasing Skeletal Muscle Mass. Can. J. Appl. Physiol. 1999;24:305–316. doi: 10.1139/h99-024. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

19. Phillips S.M. A Brief Review of Critical Processes in Exercise-Induced Muscular Hypertrophy. Sports Med. 2014;44:71–77. doi: 10.1007/s40279-014-0152-3. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

20. Campbell B.I., Aguilar D., Conlin L., Vargas A., Schoenfeld B.J., Corson A., Gai C., Best S., Galvan E., Couvillion K. Effects of High Versus Low Protein Intake on Body Composition and Maximal Strength in Aspiring Female Physique Athletes Engaging in an 8-Week Resistance Training Program. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2018;28:580–585. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0389. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

21. Morton R.W., McGlory C., Phillips S.M. Nutritional interventions to augment resistance training-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Front. Physiol. 2015;6:1–9. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2015.00245. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

22. Morton R.W., Murphy K.T., McKellar S.E., Schoenfeld B.J., Henselmans M., Helms E., Aragon A.A., Devries M.C., Banfield L., Krieger J.W., et al. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Br. J. Sports Med. 2018 52:376–384. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2017-097608. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28698222 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

23. Houltham S.D., Rowlands D.S. A snapshot of nitrogen balance in endurance-trained women. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 2014;39:219–225. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2013-0182. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

24. Antonio J., Ellerbroek A. Case Reports on Well-Trained Bodybuilders: Two Years on a High Protein Diet. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];JEPonline. 2018 21:14–24. Available online: https://www.asep.org/asep/asep/JEPonlineFEBRUARY2018_Antonio.pdf [Google Scholar]

25. Antonio J., Ellerbroek A., Silver T., Vargas L., Peacock C. The effects of a high protein diet on indices of health and body composition—A crossover trial in resistance-trained men. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2016;13:8. doi: 10.1186/s12970-016-0114-2. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

26. Bandegan A., Courtney-Martin G., Rafii M., Pencharz P.B., Lemon P.W. Indicator Amino Acid–Derived Estimate of Dietary Protein Requirement for Male Bodybuilders on a Nontraining Day Is Several-Fold Greater than the Current Recommended Dietary Allowance. J. Nutr. 2017;147:850–857. doi: 10.3945/jn.116.236331. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

27. Malowany J.M., West D.W.D., Williamson E., Volterman K.A., Sawan S.A., Mazzulla M., Moore D.R. Protein to Maximize Whole-Body Anabolism in Resistance-trained Females after Exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2019;51:798–804. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001832. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

28. Antonio J., Peacock C.A., Ellerbroek A., Fromhoff B., Silver T. The effects of consuming a high protein diet (4.4 g/kg/d) on body composition in resistance-trained individuals. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2014;11:19. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-11-19. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

29. Antonio J., Ellerbroek A., Silver T., Orris S., Scheiner M., Gonzalez A., Peacock C.A. A high protein diet (3.4 g/kg/d) combined with a heavy resistance training program improves body composition in healthy trained men and women—A follow-up investigation. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2015;12:39. doi: 10.1186/s12970-015-0100-0. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

30. Bray G.A., Smith S.R., de Jonge L., Xie H., Rood J., Martin C.K., Most M., Brock C., Mancuso S., Redman L.M. Effect of dietary protein content on weight gain, energy expenditure, and body composition during overeating: A randomized controlled trial. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];JAMA. 2012 307:47–55. doi: 10.1001/jama.2011.1918. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22215165 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

31. Tipton K.D., Ferrando A.A., Phillips S.M., Doyle D., Wolfe R.R. Postexercise net protein synthesis in human muscle from orally administered amino acids. Am. J. Physiol. Metab. 1999;276:628–634. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1999.276.4.E628. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

32. Rieu I., Balage M., Sornet C., Giraudet C., Pujos E., Grizard J., Mosoni L., Dardevet D. Leucine supplementation improves muscle protein synthesis in elderly men independently of hyperaminoacidaemia. J. Physiol. 2006;575:305–315. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2006.110742. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

33. Burd N.A., Tang J.E., Moore D.R., Phillips S.M. Exercise training and protein metabolism: Influences of contraction, protein intake, and sex-based differences. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];J. Appl. Physiol. 2008 106:1692–1701. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.91351.2008. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19036897 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

34. Drummond M.J., Dreyer H.C., Fry C.S., Glynn E.L., Rasmussen B.B. Nutritional and contractile regulation of human skeletal muscle protein synthesis and mTORC1 signaling. J. Appl. Physiol. 2009;106:1374–1384. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.91397.2008. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

35. Tang J.E., Moore D.R., Kujbida G.W., Tarnopolsky M.A., Phillips S.M. Ingestion of whey hydrolysate, casein, or soy protein isolate: Effects on mixed muscle protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in young men. J. Appl. Physiol. 2009;107:987–992. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00076.2009. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

36. Kanda A., Nakayama K., Sanbongi C., Nagata M., Ikegami S., Itoh H. Effects of Whey, Caseinate, or Milk Protein Ingestion on Muscle Protein Synthesis after Exercise. Nutrients. 2016;8:339. doi: 10.3390/nu8060339. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

37. Messina M., Lynch H., Dickinson J.M., Reed K.E. No Difference Between the Effects of Supplementing With Soy Protein Versus Animal Protein on Gains in Muscle Mass and Strength in Response to Resistance Exercise. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2018;28:674–685. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0071. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

38. Joy J.M., Lowery R.P., Wilson J.M., Purpura M., De Souza E.O., Mc Wilson S., Kalman D.S., Dudeck J.E., Jäger R. The effects of 8 weeks of whey or rice protein supplementation on body composition and exercise performance. Nutr. J. 2013;12:86. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-12-86. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

39. Babault N., Paizis C., Deley G., Guérin-Deremaux L., Saniez M.-H., Lefranc-Millot C., Allaert F.A. Pea proteins oral supplementation promotes muscle thickness gains during resistance training: A double-blind, randomized, Placebo-controlled clinical trial vs. Whey protein. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2015;12:1692. doi: 10.1186/s12970-014-0064-5. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

40. Tesch P.A. Glycogen and triglyceride utilization in relation to muscle metabolic characteristics in men performing heavy-resistance exercise. Graefe’s Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 1990;61:5–10. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

41. Lane A.R., Duke J.W., Hackney A.C. Influence of dietary carbohydrate intake on the free testosterone: Cortisol ratio responses to short-term intensive exercise training. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2010 108:1125–1131. doi: 10.1007/s00421-009-1220-5. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20091182 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

42. Tegelman R., Aberg T., Pousette A., Carlström K. Effects of a diet regimen on pituitary and steroid hormones in male ice hockey players. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Int. J. Sports Med. 1992 13:420–430. doi: 10.1055/s-2007-1021292. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1387870 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

43. Dorgan J.F., Judd J.T., Longcope C., Brown C., Schatzkin A., Clevidence B.A., Campbell W.S., Nair P.P., Franz C., Kahle L., et al. Effects of dietary fat and fiber on plasma and urine androgens and estrogens in men: A controlled feeding study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1996;64:850–855. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/64.6.850. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

44. Hämäläinen E., Adlercreutz H., Puska P., Pietinen P. Decrease of serum total and free testosterone during a low-fat high-fibre diet. J. Steroid Biochem. 1983;18:369–370. doi: 10.1016/0022-4731(83)90117-6. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

45. Hämäläinen E., Adlercreutz H., Puska P., Pietinen P. Diet and serum sex hormones in healthy men. J. Steroid Biochem. 1984;20:459–464. doi: 10.1016/0022-4731(84)90254-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

46. Wang C., Catlin D.H., Starcevic B., Heber D., Ambler C., Berman N., Lucas G., Leung A., Schramm K., Lee P.W.N., et al. Low-Fat High-Fiber Diet Decreased Serum and Urine Androgens in Men. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2005;90:3550–3559. doi: 10.1210/jc.2004-1530. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

47. Morton R.W., Sato K., Gallaugher M.P.B., Oikawa S.Y., McNicholas P.D., Fujita S., Phillips S.M. Muscle Androgen Receptor Content but Not Systemic Hormones Is Associated With Resistance Training-Induced Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy in Healthy, Young Men. Front. Physiol. 2018;9:9. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01373. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

48. Tinsley G.M., Willoughby D.S. Fat-Free Mass Changes During Ketogenic Diets and the Potential Role of Resistance Training. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2016;26:78–92. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.2015-0070. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

49. Vargas S., Romance R., Petro J.L., Bonilla D.A., Galancho I., Espinar S., Kreider R.B., Benítez-Porres J. Efficacy of ketogenic diet on body composition during resistance training in trained men: A randomized controlled trial. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2018;15:31. doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0236-9. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

50. Kephart W.C., Pledge C.D., Roberson P.A., Mumford P.W., Romero M.A., Mobley C.B., Martin J.S., Young K.C., Lowery R.P., Wilson J.M., et al. The Three-Month Effects of a Ketogenic Diet on Body Composition, Blood Parameters, and Performance Metrics in CrossFit Trainees: A Pilot Study. Sports. 2018;6:1. doi: 10.3390/sports6010001. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

51. Greene D.A., Varley B.J., Hartwig T.B., Chapman P., Rigney M. A Low-Carbohydrate Ketogenic Diet Reduces Body Mass Without Compromising Performance in Powerlifting and Olympic Weightlifting Athletes. [(accessed on 26 March 2019)];J. Strength Cond. Res. 2018 32:3373–3382. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30335720 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

52. Bird S. Strength Nutrition: Maximizing Your Anabolic Potential. Strength Cond. J. 2010;32:80–86. doi: 10.1519/SSC.0b013e3181d5284e. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

53. American Dietetic Association. Dietitians of Canada. American College of Sports Medicine. Rodriguez N.R., Di Marco N.M., Langley S. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Nutrition and athletic performance. [(accessed on 26 March 2019)];Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2009 41:709–731. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19225360 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

54. Chung S.T., Chacko S.K., Sunehag A.L., Haymond M.W. Measurements of Gluconeogenesis and Glycogenolysis: A Methodological Review. Diabetes. 2015;64:3996–4010. doi: 10.2337/db15-0640. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

55. Azizi F. Effect of dietary composition on fasting-induced changes in serum thyroid hormones and thyrotropin. Metabolism. 1978;27:935–942. doi: 10.1016/0026-0495(78)90137-3. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

56. Mathieson R.A., Walberg J.L., Gwazdauskas F.C., Hinkle D.E., Gregg J.M. The effect of varying carbohydrate content of a very-low-caloric diet on resting metabolic rate and thyroid hormones. Metabolism. 1986;35:394–398. doi: 10.1016/0026-0495(86)90126-5. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

57. Leveritt M., Abernethy P.J. Effects of Carbohydrate Restriction on Strength Performance. J. Strength Cond. Res. 1999;13:52–57. [Google Scholar]

58. Jacobs I., Kaiser P., Tesch P. Muscle strength and fatigue after selective glycogen depletion in human skeletal muscle fibers. Graefe’s Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 1981;46:47–53. doi: 10.1007/BF00422176. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

59. Ray S., Sale D.G., Lee P., Garner S., MacDougall J.D., McCartney N. Muscle Substrate Utilization and Lactate Production During Weightlifting. Can. J. Appl. Physiol. 1999;24:209–215. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

60. Tesch P.A., Colliander E.B., Kaiser P. Muscle metabolism during intense, heavy-resistance exercise. Graefe’s Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 1986;55:362–366. doi: 10.1007/BF00422734. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

61. Pascoe D.D., Costill D.L., Fink W.J., Robergs R.A., Zachwieja J.J. Glycogen resynthesis in skeletal muscle following resistive exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1993;25:349. doi: 10.1249/00005768-199303000-00009. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

62. Ørtenblad N., Westerblad H., Nielsen J. Muscle glycogen stores and fatigue. [(accessed on 26 March 2019)];J. Physiol. 2013 591:4405–4413. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2013.251629. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23652590 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

63. Mitchell J.B., DiLauro P.C., Pizza F.X., Cavender D.L. The Effect of Preexercise Carbohydrate Status on Resistance Exercise Performance. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 1997;7:185–196. doi: 10.1123/ijsn.7.3.185. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

64. Lima-Silva A.E., Silva-Cavalcante M.D., Oliveira R.S., Kiss M.A., Pires F.O., Bertuzzi R., Bishop D. Effects of a low- or a high-carbohydrate diet on performance, energy system contribution, and metabolic responses during supramaximal exercise. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 2013;38:928–934. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2012-0467. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

65. Vega F., Jackson R. Dietary habits of bodybuilders and other regular exercisers. Nutr. Res. 1996;16:3–10. doi: 10.1016/0271-5317(95)02054-3. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

66. Chappell A.J., Simper T., Barker M.E. Nutritional strategies of high level natural bodybuilders during competition preparation. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2018;15:4. doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0209-z. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

67. Atherton P.J., Etheridge T., Watt P.W., Wilkinson D., Selby A., Rankin D., Smith K., Rennie M.J. Muscle full effect after oral protein: Time-dependent concordance and discordance between human muscle protein synthesis and mTORC1 signaling. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010;92:1080–1088. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2010.29819. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

68. Res P.T., Groen B., Pennings B., Beelen M., Wallis G.A., Gijsen A.P., Senden J.M., Van Loon L.J. Protein ingestion before sleep improves postexercise overnight recovery. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2012 44:1560–1569. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31824cc363. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22330017 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

69. Moore D.R., Robinson M.J., Fry J.L., Tang J.E., Glover E.I., Wilkinson S.B., Prior T., Tarnopolsky M.A., Phillips S.M. Ingested protein dose response of muscle and albumin protein synthesis after resistance exercise in young men. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009 89:161–168. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.26401. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19056590 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

70. Witard O.C., Jackman S.R., Breen L., Smith K., Selby A., Tipton K.D. Muscle protein synthesis rates subsequent to a meal in response to increasing doses of whey protein at rest and after. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2014 99:86–95. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.112.055517. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24257722 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

71. Macnaughton L.S., Wardle S.L., Witard O.C., McGlory C., Hamilton D.L., Jeromson S., Lawrence C.E., Wallis G.A., Tipton K.D. The response of muscle protein synthesis following whole-body resistance exercise is greater following 40 g than 20 g of ingested whey protein. Physiol. Rep. 2016;4:e12893. doi: 10.14814/phy2.12893. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

72. Schoenfeld B.J., Aragon A.A., Krieger J.W. The effect of protein timing on muscle strength and hypertrophy: A meta-analysis. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2013;10:53. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-10-53. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

73. Areta J.L., Burke L.M., Ross M.L., Camera D.M., West D.W.D., Broad E.M., Jeacocke N.A., Moore D.R., Stellingwerff T., Phillips S.M., et al. Timing and distribution of protein ingestion during prolonged recovery from resistance exercise alters myofibrillar protein synthesis. J. Physiol. 2013;591:2319–2331. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2012.244897. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

74. Hudson J.L., Bergia R.E., Campbell W.W. Effects of protein supplements consumed with meals, versus between meals, on resistance training–induced body composition changes in adults: A systematic review. Nutr. Rev. 2018;76:461–468. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuy012. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

75. Trommelen J., Kouw I.W.K., Holwerda A.M., Snijders T., Halson S.L., Rollo I., Verdijk L.B., Van Loon L.J.C. Pre-sleep dietary protein-derived amino acids are incorporated in myofibrillar protein during post-exercise overnight recovery. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Am. J. Physiol. Metab. 2018 1:457–467. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28536184 [Google Scholar]

76. Kouw I.W., Holwerda A.M., Trommelen J., Kramer I.F., Bastiaanse J., Halson S.L., Wodzig W.K., Verdijk L.B., Van Loon L.J. Protein Ingestion before Sleep Increases Overnight Muscle Protein Synthesis Rates in Healthy Older Men: A Randomized Controlled Trial. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];J. Nutr. 2017 147:2252–2261. doi: 10.3945/jn.117.254532. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28855419 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

77. Snijders T., Res P.T., Smeets J.S., Van Vliet S., Van Kranenburg J., Maase K., Kies A.K., Verdijk L.B., Van Loon L.J. Protein ingestion before sleep increases muscle mass and strength gains during prolonged resistance-type exercise training in healthy young men. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];J. Nutr. 2015 145:1178–1184. doi: 10.3945/jn.114.208371. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25926415 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

78. Joy J.M., Vogel R.M., Broughton K.S., Kudla U., Kerr N.Y., Davison J.M., Wildman R.E.C., DiMarco N.M. Daytime and nighttime casein supplements similarly increase muscle size and strength in response to resistance training earlier in the day: A preliminary investigation. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2018;15:24. doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0228-9. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

79. Antonio J., Ellerbroek A., Peacock C., Silver T. Casein Protein Supplementation in Trained Men and Women: Morning versus Evening. Int. J. Exerc. Sci. 2017;10:479–486. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

80. Schoenfeld B.J., Aragon A.A. How much protein can the body use in a single meal for muscle-building? Implications for daily protein distribution. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2018;15:10. doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0215-1. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

81. Pennings B., Groen B.B., Van Dijk J.-W., De Lange A., Kiskini A., Kuklinski M., Senden J.M., Van Loon L.J. Minced beef is more rapidly digested and absorbed than beef steak, resulting in greater postprandial protein retention in older men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013;98:121–128. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.112.051201. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

82. Kim I.Y., Schutzler S., Schrader A., Spencer H.J., Azhar G., Ferrando A.A., Wolfe R.R. The anabolic response to a meal containing different amounts of protein is not limited by the maximal stimulation of protein synthesis in healthy young adults. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Am. J. Physiol. Metab. 2016 310:73–80. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00365.2015. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26530155 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

83. Jentjens R., Jeukendrup A.E. Determinants of Post-Exercise Glycogen Synthesis During Short-Term Recovery. Sports Med. 2003;33:117–144. doi: 10.2165/00007256-200333020-00004. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

84. Biolo G., Williams B.D., Fleming R.Y., Wolfe R.R. Insulin action on muscle protein kinetics and amino acid transport during recovery after resistance exercise. Diabetes. 1999;48:949–957. doi: 10.2337/diabetes.48.5.949. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

85. Greenhaff P.L., Karagounis L.G., Peirce N., Simpson E.J., Hazell M., Layfield R., Wackerhage H., Smith K., Atherton P., Selby A., et al. Disassociation between the effects of amino acids and insulin on signaling, ubiquitin ligases, and protein turnover in human muscle. Am. J. Physiol. Metab. 2008;295:E595–E604. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.90411.2008. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

86. Glynn E.L., Fry C.S., Timmerman K.L., Drummond M.J., Volpi E., Rasmussen B.B., Leroy J.L., Gadsden P., De Cossío T.G., Gertler P. Addition of Carbohydrate or Alanine to an Essential Amino Acid Mixture Does Not Enhance Human Skeletal Muscle Protein Anabolism123. J. Nutr. 2013;143:307–314. doi: 10.3945/jn.112.168203. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

87. Koopman R., Beelen M., Stellingwerff T., Pennings B., Saris W.H.M., Kies A.K., Kuipers H., Van Loon L.J.C. Coingestion of carbohydrate with protein does not further augment postexercise muscle protein synthesis. Am. J. Physiol. Metab. 2007;293:E833–E842. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00135.2007. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

88. Aragon A.A., Schoenfeld B.J. Nutrient timing revisited: Is there a post-exercise anabolic window? J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2013;10:5. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-10-5. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

89. Jäger R., Kerksick C.M., Campbell B.I., Cribb P.J., Wells S.D., Skwiat T.M., Purpura M., Ziegenfuss T.N., Ferrando A.A., Arent S.M., et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Protein and exercise. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];J. Int. Soc. Sport. Nutr. 2017 4:20. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28642676 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

90. Darrabie M.D., Arciniegas A.J.L., Mishra R., Bowles D.E., Jacobs D.O., Santacruz L. AMPK and substrate availability regulate creatine transport in cultured cardiomyocytes. Am. J. Physiol. Metab. 2011;300:870–876. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00554.2010. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

91. Purchas R., Busboom J., Wilkinson B. Changes in the forms of iron and in concentrations of taurine, carnosine, coenzyme Q10, and creatine in beef longissimus muscle with cooking and simulated stomach and duodenal digestion. Meat Sci. 2006;74:443–449. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2006.03.015. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

92. Branch J.D. Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Body Composition and Performance: A Meta-analysis. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2003;13:198–226. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.13.2.198. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

93. Hultman E., Söderlund K., Timmons J.A., Cederblad G., Greenhaff P.L. Muscle creatine loading in men. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];J. Appl. Physiol. Soc. 1996 81:232–237. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1996.81.1.232. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8828669 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

94. Jagim A.R., Oliver J.M., Sanchez A., Galvan E., Fluckey J., Riechman S., Greenwood M., Kelly K., Meininger C., Rasmussen C., et al. A buffered form of creatine does not promote greater changes in muscle creatine content, body composition, or training adaptations than creatine monohydrate. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2012;9:43. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-9-43. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

95. Spillane M., Schoch R., Cooke M., Harvey T., Greenwood M., Kreider R., Willoughby D.S., Cooke M. The effects of creatine ethyl ester supplementation combined with heavy resistance training on body composition, muscle performance, and serum and muscle creatine levels. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2009;6:6. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-6-6. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

96. Childs E., De Wit H., Wit H. Subjective, behavioral, and physiological effects of acute caffeine in light, nondependent caffeine users. Psychopharmacology. 2006;185:514–523. doi: 10.1007/s00213-006-0341-3. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

97. Bellar D., Kamimori G.H., Glickman E.L. The Effects of Low-Dose Caffeine on Perceived Pain During a Grip to Exhaustion Task. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2011;25:1225–1228. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181d9901f. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

98. Davis J.K., Green J.M. Caffeine and anaerobic performance: Ergogenic value and mechanisms of action. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Sport. Med. 2009 39:813–832. doi: 10.2165/11317770-000000000-00000. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19757860 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

99. Wickwire P.J., McLester J.R., Gendle S., Hudson G., Pritchett R.C., Laurent C.M., Green J.M. Effects of Caffeine on Repetitions to Failure and Ratings of Perceived Exertion during Resistance Training. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2007;2:250–259. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

100. Duncan M.J., Oxford S.W. The effect of caffeine ingestion on mood state and bench press performance to failure. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];J. Strength Cond. Res. 2001 25:178–185. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e318201bddb. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22124354 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

101. Williams A.D., Cribb P.J., Cooke M.B., Hayes A. The Effect of Ephedra and Caffeine on Maximal Strength and Power in Resistance-Trained Athletes. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2008;22:464–470. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181660320. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

102. Tarnopolsky M.A., Atkinson S.A., MacDougall J.D., Sale D.G., Sutton J.R. Physiological responses to caffeine during endurance running in habitual caffeine users. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1989;21:418–424. doi: 10.1249/00005768-198908000-00013. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

103. Blanchard J., Sawers S.J.A. The absolute bioavailability of caffeine in man. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1983;24:93–98. doi: 10.1007/BF00613933. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

104. Hobson R.M., Saunders B., Ball G., Harris R.C., Sale C. Effects of β-alanine supplementation on exercise performance: A meta-analysis. Amino Acids. 2012;43:25–37. doi: 10.1007/s00726-011-1200-z. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

105. Hoffman J., Ratamess N.A., Ross R., Kang J., Magrelli J., Neese K., Faigenbaum A.D., Wise J.A. Beta-alanine and the hormonal response to exercise. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Int. J. Sports Med. 2008 29:952–958. doi: 10.1055/s-2008-1038678. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18548362 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

106. Hoffman J., Ratamess N., Kang J., Mangine G., Faigenbaum A., Stout J. Effect of creatine and β-alanine supplementation on performance and endocrine responses in strength/power athletes. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2006 16:430–446. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.16.4.430. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17136944 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

107. Pérez-Guisado J., Jakeman P.M. Citrulline Malate Enhances Athletic Anaerobic Performance and Relieves Muscle Soreness. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2010;24:1215–1222. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181cb28e0. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

108. Wax B., Kavazis A.N., Weldon K., Sperlak J. Effects of Supplemental Citrulline Malate Ingestion During Repeated Bouts of Lower-Body Exercise in Advanced Weightlifters. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2015;29:786–792. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000670. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

109. Wax B., Kavazis A.N., Luckett W. Effects of Supplemental Citrulline-Malate Ingestion on Blood Lactate, Cardiovascular Dynamics and Resistance Exercise Performance in Trained Males. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];J. Diet. 2016 13:269–282. doi: 10.3109/19390211.2015.1008615. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25674699 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

110. Glenn J.M., Gray M., Wethington L.N., Stone M.S., Stewart R.W., Jr., Moyen N.E. Acute citrulline malate supplementation improves upper- and lower-body submaximal weightlifting exercise performance in resistance-trained females. [(accessed on 25 March 2019)];Eur. J. Nutr. 2017 56:775–784. doi: 10.1007/s00394-015-1124-6. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26658899 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

111. Glenn J.M., Gray M., Jensen A., Stone M.S., Vincenzo J.L. Acute citrulline-malate supplementation improves maximal strength and anaerobic power in female, masters athletes tennis players. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2016;16:1–9. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2016.1158321. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

112. Gonzalez A.M., Spitz R.W., Ghigiarelli J.J., Sell K.M., Mangine G.T. Acute Effect of Citrulline Malate Supplementation on Upper-Body Resistance Exercise Performance in Recreationally Resistance-Trained Men. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2018;32:3088–3094. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000002373. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

113. Farney T.M., Bliss M.V., Hearon C.M., Salazar D.A. The Effect of Citrulline Malate Supplementation On Muscle Fatigue Among Healthy Participants. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2017:1. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000002356. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

114. Trexler E.T., Persky A.M., Ryan E.D., Schwartz T.A., Stoner L., Smith-Ryan A.E. Acute Effects of Citrulline Supplementation on High-Intensity Strength and Power Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2019;49:707–718. doi: 10.1007/s40279-019-01091-z. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

115. Kleiner S.M., Bazzarre T.L., Litchford M.D. Metabolic profiles, diet, and health practices of championship male and female bodybuilders. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1990;90:962–967. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

116. Kleiner S.M., Bazzarre T.L., Ainsworth B.E. Nutritional Status of Nationally Ranked Elite Bodybuilders. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 1994;4:54–69. doi: 10.1123/ijsn.4.1.54. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

117. Sandoval W.M., Heyward V.H. Food Selection Patterns of Bodybuilders. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 1991;1:61–68. doi: 10.1123/ijsn.1.1.61. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

118. Ismaeel A., Weems S., Willoughby D.S. A Comparison of the Nutrient Intakes of Macronutrient-Based Dieting and Strict Dieting Bodybuilders. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2018;28:502–508. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0323. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

119. Nelson J.R., Raskin S. The eicosapentaenoic acid:arachidonic acid ratio and its clinical utility in cardiovascular disease. Postgrad. Med. 2019;131:268–277. doi: 10.1080/00325481.2019.1607414. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

120. Harris W.S. The Omega-6: Omega-3 ratio: A critical appraisal and possible successor. [(accessed on 15 June 2019)];Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2018 132:34–40. doi: 10.1016/j.plefa.2018.03.003. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/29599053/ [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

121. Tachtsis B., Camera D., Lacham-Kaplan O. Potential Roles of n-3 PUFAs during Skeletal Muscle Growth and Regeneration. Nutrients. 2018;10:309. doi: 10.3390/nu10030309. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

122. Di Girolamo F.G., Situlin R., Mazzucco S., Valentini R., Toigo G., Biolo G. Omega-3 fatty acids and protein metabolism: Enhancement of anabolic interventions for sarcopenia. [(accessed on 15 June 2019)];Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab Care. 2014 17:145–150. doi: 10.1097/MCO.0000000000000032. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24500439 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

123. McGlory C., Wardle S.L., Macnaughton L.S., Witard O.C., Scott F., Dick J., Bell J.G., Phillips S.M., Galloway S.D.R., Hamilton D.L., et al. Fish oil supplementation suppresses resistance exercise and feeding-induced increases in anabolic signaling without affecting myofibrillar protein synthesis in young men. Physiol. Rep. 2016;4:e12715. doi: 10.14814/phy2.12715. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

124. Crestani D.M., Bonin E.F.R., Barbieri R.A., Zagatto A.M., Higino W.P., Milion F. Chronic supplementation of omega-3 can improve body composition and maximal strength, but does not change the resistance to neuromuscular fatigue. [(accessed on 15 June 2019)];Sport Sci. Health. 2017 13:259–265. doi: 10.1007/s11332-016-0322-9. Available online: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11332-016-0322-9 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

125. Lewis E.J.H., Radonic P.W., Wolever T.M.S., Wells G.D. 21 days of mammalian omega-3 fatty acid supplementation improves aspects of neuromuscular function and performance in male athletes compared to olive oil placebo. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2015;12:28. doi: 10.1186/s12970-015-0089-4. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

126. Rossato L.T., Schoenfeld B.J., De Oliveira E.P. Is there sufficient evidence to supplement omega-3 fatty acids to increase muscle mass and strength in young and older adults? Clin. Nutr. 2019 doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2019.01.001. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

127. Mocking R.J.T., Harmsen I., Assies J., Koeter M.W.J., Ruhé H.G., Schene A.H. Meta-analysis and meta-regression of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for major depressive disorder. Transl. Psychiatry. 2016;6:e756. doi: 10.1038/tp.2016.29. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

128. Maki K.C., Palacios O.M., Bell M., Toth P.P. Use of supplemental long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and risk for cardiac death: An updated meta-analysis and review of research gaps. J. Clin. Lipidol. 2017;11:1152–1160.e2. doi: 10.1016/j.jacl.2017.07.010. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

129. Miller P.E., Van Elswyk M., Alexander D.D. Long-Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acids Eicosapentaenoic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid and Blood Pressure: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Am. J. Hypertens. 2014;27:885–896. doi: 10.1093/ajh/hpu024. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

130. Du S., Jin J., Fang W., Su Q. Does Fish Oil Have an Anti-Obesity Effect in Overweight/Obese Adults? A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. PLoS ONE. 2015;10:e0142652. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142652. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]