President ______ used the federal military and police power to intervene in the pullman strike.

Which of the following statements about the Alien and Sedition Acts is incorrect?

Which of the following statements about the 1800 presidential campaign is incorrect?

Which of the following statements regarding educational opportunities for people of different classes and races in the early nineteenth century is not correct?

Which of the following statements regarding educational opportunities for women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries is not correct?

Which of the following statements about private and public education in the Jeffersonian era is not correct?

Which of the following statements about education in the Jeffersonian era is not correct?

Which of the following statements regarding medicine, infection, and disease in the early nineteenth century is not correct?

Which of the following statements about religious life in America during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries is not correct?

Which of the following statements regarding involvement by women and African Americans in the Second Great Awakening is not correct?

Which of the following statements about Handsome Lake is not correct?

Which of the following statements regarding Native Americans and revivalism during the years of the Second Great Awakening is not correct?

Which of the following statements about the Second Great Awakening is not correct?

Which of the following statements about the ideas and impact of the Second Great Awakening is not correct?

Which of the following statements about cotton cleaning and the invention of the cotton gin is not correct?

Which of the following statements about the impact of the cotton gin is not correct?

Which of the following statements about technology in the early nineteenth century is not correct?

A new era in river transportation began in the summer of 1807 with the launch of a ______ called the Clermont on the Hudson River.

Which of the following does not accurately characterize the impact of industrialization on society?

Which of the following statements regarding urbanization in America in 1800 is not correct?

Which of the following statements about the new capital city of Washington, D.C., is not correct?

Which of the following statements about the conflict with the Barbary states of North Africa's Mediterranean coast is not correct?

Which of the following statements regarding Jefferson's military and defense policy is not correct?

Which of the following accurately characterize what Chief Justice John Marshall achieved with his Marbury v. Madison ruling?

Which of the following statements accurately identifies the Judiciary Act of 1789 and its relation to Marbury v. Madison?

In Marbury v. Madison, Chief Justice John Marshall declared the Judiciary Act of 1801 unconstitutional because

Which of the following statements about William Marbury is not correct?

The Supreme Court's ruling in Marbury v. Madison appeared on the surface to deny its own ______.

Marbury v. Madison involved the legal concept of judicial ______ and the question of the Supreme Court's authority to ______ acts of Congress.

Marbury v. Madison addressed the question of whether the Supreme Court had the authority to

Republican attacks on the judiciary and debate over the courts were the context of ______ v. Madison (1803), one of the most important judicial decisions in American history.

Which of the following statements about the Louisiana Purchase is not correct?

Jefferson authorized the Lewis and Clark expedition to do all of the following except

During the period between the duel with Hamilton in 1804 and his capture in 1807, Burr did all of the following except

Which of the following statements about New England Federalists in 1804 is not correct?

Spanish Florida included southern areas of all these present-day U.S. states except

Which of the following statements regarding the early part of the War of 1812 is not correct?

Which of the following is not an accurate portrayal of events that took place in the Northwest in 1813?

Which of the following was not one of the participants in the peace negotiations with the British in 1814?

Which of the following statements regarding peace negotiations with Britain in 1814 is not correct?

Which of the following statements regarding mountain men and their relationship to the larger economy is not correct?

The Columbian Centinel characterized the atmosphere of the late 1810s under the Monroe administration as an "______ of good ______."

In shaping the Constitution of the United States through his work as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Marshall did all of the following except

In its Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) ruling, the Marshall Court strengthened the power of Congress to regulate

Marshall confirmed the ______ powers of Congress by upholding the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819).

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) raised which constitutional issues?

Advocates of ______ rights, especially in the South, continued to challenge Marshall Court rulings such as Cohens v. Virginia (1821).

Supreme Court rulings in cases such as Fletcher v. Peck (1810) illustrated the Marshall Court's commitment to promoting ______ and defending the inviolability of contracts.

One of the most important Supreme Court decisions regarding Indian tribes and their territory was Worcester v.Georgia (1832), in which the Court invalidated state laws ______ lands controlled by Cherokee Indians.

In Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the Marshall Court defined the Indian tribes as ______ in much the same way that Georgia was.

In Johnson v. McIntosh (1823), the Marshall Court ruled that Indians had a basic right to their tribal lands and that only ______ had the right to acquire those lands from them.

Which of the following statements regarding events in Latin America during the decade after the beginning of the War of 1812 is not correct?

Which of the following statements regarding the outcome of the 1824 presidential election is not correct?

the Federalist Papers

the Congressional Papers

Which of the following was not one of the "Five Civilized Tribes"?

Which of the following statements about Indian removal is incorrect?

The pueblos of New Mexico and fur trading posts of the Pacific Northwest were examples of peaceful Indian–white coexistence.

Which of the following statements regarding the Bank of the United States in the 1830s is incorrect?

Which of the following statements about the end of the Bank War is incorrect?

Both sides were partly to blame for worsening financial conditions in 1833–1834.

Which of the following statements regarding actions by the Jackson administration against the Bank of the United States in 1833 is incorrect?

In Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge (1837), Roger B. Taney argued that the ______ took precedence over the ______.

Which of the following statements regarding Roger B. Taney is incorrect?

Who was not a member of the "Great Triumvirate"?

Which of the following groups was not a strong supporter of the Whigs?

Which of the following statements about the 1840 presidential election is incorrect?

Which of the following statements about events that surrounded President Harrison's inauguration is incorrect?

The first issue of the New York Sun on September 3, 1833, marked the introduction of the "______ ______," which inaugurated a new age in American journalism.

Which of the following statements about relations with the British before and during the Tyler administration is incorrect?

British officials in the Bahamas freed a group of slaves who had mutinied aboard the Creole in 1841, angering Americans.

reached some resolution on the Caroline and Creole incidents.

engaged in a heated argument over the Caroline and Creole incidents that brought negotiations to a standstill.

Which of the following best describes the Caroline?

Which of the following was not an impact of the magnetic telegraph?

little power because the Massachusetts Supreme Court outlawed labor unions in Commonwealth v. Hunt in 1842.

The supreme court of Massachusetts, in Commonwealth v. Hunt, declared in 1842 that

Most white families owned at least 2–3 slaves.

Most affluent white southern women engaged in all of the following except

Nonslaveholding whites relied on the plantation system for all of the following except

Which of the following roles was not assigned to house slaves?

Which of the following was not an idea Walt Whitman celebrated in his work?

Which of the following was not a theme of James Fenimore Cooper's novels?

Which of the following is not an example of how transcendentalists redefined gender roles?

Which of the following is not a Mormon belief?

Which of the following was not a health fad in the antebellum years?

Which of the following were not reforms implemented by Horace Mann?

Which of the following was not a demand made in the "Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions"?

Which of the following was not a goal of the American Colonization Society?

Who of the following abolitionists was not a free black?

Which of the following was not a reason that northern whites were against abolition?

Uncle Tom's Cabin was written as a

Uncle Tom's Cabin gained national popularity in the mid-nineteenth century by being reproduced in all of the following ways except as a

Which of the following groups was not a significant part of the California population in the mid-1840s?

They believed that winning the "54–40" concession was essential for success in Mexico.

Which of the following was not a reason some Americans opposed the Mexican War?

Who of the following national leaders was not a major voice in the first round of debate over the Compromise of 1850?

Which of the following was not a provision of Henry Clay's Compromise of 1850?

The bill called for abolishing the slave trade, but not slavery, in Washington.

align the Mexico–United States border with natural borders.

Which of the following was not a direct political response to the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act?

In order to please southerners, Stephen A. Douglas agreed to divide the territory west of Iowa and Missouri as part of the ______–______ Act.

Who did not strongly support the Kansas-Nebraska Act in its final form?

Which of the following was not an outcome of the 1855 election of a territorial legislature in Kansas?

Which of the following was not a defense of slavery put forth by The Pro-Slavery Argument?

Which of the following did not compel southerners to support the pro-slavery argument?

the anti-slavery ruling in the Dred Scott case

Uncle Tom's Cabin and other abolitionist writings

They produced The Pro-Slavery Argument.

How did southern whites react to the Dred Scott decision?

How did northerners react to the Dred Scott decision?

True or false: The Dred Scott decision was considered a major success for the anti-slavery movement.

The Dred Scott decision was a major blow to the anti-slavery movement because it held that the federal government had little power to regulate slavery.

The Dred Scott decision was a major blow to the anti-slavery movement because it held that the federal government had little power to regulate slavery.

On what legal basis did Dred Scott argue for his freedom in Dred Scott v. Sandford?

Which of the following was not a reason that Republicans choose Abraham Lincoln as their presidential nominee in 1860?

The Union vessel Monitor was

Which of the following was not a concern of southerners after the Civil War?

Radical Republicans' proposal for Reconstruction was known as the ______–______ Bill.

Which of the following was not one of northerners' reactions to Lincoln's assassination?

Andrew Johnson's "Restoration" plan required southern states to do all of the following except

Which of the following was not part of Andrew Johnson's "Restoration" plan?

How did Congress respond to the South's discriminatory laws?

Congressional Radicals used all of the following methods to prevent the president from interfering with their plans for Reconstruction except

According to the Reconstruction bills passed in 1867, the requirements for readmission to the Union included all of the following except

Which of the following was not a reason Americans disapproved of President Grant?

Which of the following was not a scandal that plagued the Grant administration?

Which of the following is not true of the Panic of 1873 and its effect on the national economy?

In order to accept Hayes as president, Southern Democrats required all of the following concessions except

Which of the following did not contribute to the expansion of the textile industry?

Which of the following northern values did southerners not want to emulate?

Plessy v. Ferguson

Brown v. Board of Education

Williams v. Mississippi

Pearson v. Jim Crow

In the late nineteenth century, a great wave of immigrants came from all these places except

Which of the following environmental problems was not present in most late-nineteenth-century American cities?

Which of the following was a false belief many middle-class Americans had about urban crime?

In his books The Theory of Prosperity and The New Basis of Civilization, economist ______ ______ challenged the long-standing view of leisure.

Tom Sawyer

The Red Badge of Courage

Portrait of a Lady

Which one of the following was not accomplished at the founding convention of the People's Party in 1892?

The American-dominated sugar plantation system did not

What is the most likely cause of the explosion that sank the battleship Maine in Havana Harbor?

Which of the following occupations was not a major component of the new middle class that arose in the late nineteenth century?

Who wrote The Souls of Black Folk (1903)?

Which of the following was not a major benefit for workers under "welfare capitalism"?

Which of the following was not a major figure of the Harlem Renaissance?

What role did the 1937 crash of the dirigible Hindenburg play in the history of radio?

Life

Newsweek

National Geographic

Sports Illustrated

One of the most popular creations of the 1930s, Gone With the Wind was which of the following?

One of the most celebrated novels of the 1930s, John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath told the story of

Which of the following statements about Roosevelt's commissioner of Indian affairs, John Collier, is not true?

Which of the following statements about the welfare system established by the New Deal is not true?

In December 1937, the American gunboat Panay

Recall that the gunboat Panay was bombed and sunk by Japanese aviators as the vessel sailed the Yangtze River in China.

In the weeks following the Panay incident,

The Panay incident was

The German term Anschluss was used by Hitler and others in reference to his

After the destroyer Reuben James was sunk in October 1941, Congress allowed merchant vessels to be armed and to sail all the way into Allied ports.

The Spanish term braceros was used during the war in reference to

kamikaze attacks.

An important civil-rights case, Shelley v. Kraemer involved discrimination in

Which of the following was not a form of federal economic stimulation that contributed to the economic boom of the 1950s?

In January 1958 the United States launched the satellite ______ ______, following the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, the first earth-orbiting satellite.

In his book The Other America, ______ ______ depicts ongoing poverty in this country in the midst of plenty.

Out of 3,000 school districts affected by Brown v. Board of Education, only ______ had initiated any desegregation steps as of the fall of 1957.

Which action did Martin Luther King Jr. not urge his followers to practice in the pursuit of racial justice?

It attacked de jure segregation while the Southern campaign attacked de facto segregation.

Which Latino group formed an organization called La Raza Unida to gain more political influence?

The Feminine Mystique described the

Roe v. Wade

Griswold v. Connecticut

What was Aldo Leopold's main argument in his 1949 book The Sand Country Almanac?

The influential book Silent Spring demonstrated which of the following?

Miranda v. Arizona

Escobedo v. Illinois

Furman v. Georgia

Roth v. United States

Which of the following statements about the Lewinsky scandal is incorrect?

Between 1980 and 1999, corporations cut labor costs in all of the following ways, except by

Which of the following statements about the economic downturn in the first decade of the twenty-first century is incorrect?

Which of the following was not a significant characteristic of the U.S. economy relative to the world economy during the late twentieth century?

Which of the following statements about race and education in the early twenty-first century is incorrect?

Which of the following is not a multinational institution that attracted anti-globalization protests in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries?

Which of the following groups was not a major source of opposition to globalization in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries?

Which of the following is not an example of American victims of terrorism on foreign soil?

the assault on the USS Cole in 2000

The Alabama claims, in which the United States sued the British government over the sale of military equipment to the Confederacy, was not settled until ______.

The **supremacy** of the **federal judiciary** over state courts was established by **overturning** the **decisions** of state courts and legislatures.

Marshall upheld the **\"implied powers\"** of **Congress** when he decided that Congress had properly created the **Bank of the United States,** despite its deep **unpopularity.**

The court upheld the **inviolability** of **contracts** by making several decisions that **limited** the **ability** of states or the **government** to **void** them.

Marshall **strengthened** the idea of **judicial review**--that the Supreme Court could decide on the constitutionality of almost any question.

Immigrants were racially inferior.

They corrupted politics by selling their votes.

Immigrants were stealing jobs from the native workforce.

Catholics and the Catholic Church would gain too much political power.

+The New Two-Party System+

Massachusetts had granted a monopoly of bridge traffic to one company, but later gave permission to another company to build a toll-free bridge.

Taney decided that the state was within its power, thus overturning Marshall's rationale that stressed the inviolability of contracts.

Taney reasoned that by allowing the new bridge, the state was contributing to the general welfare of the community.

The **British** attempted to gain **control** of the **southern colonies** where they believed **Loyalists** would join their cause.\n

In actuality, the British faced stiff **Patriot resistance** in the **South.**

While achieving some victories, **superior American tactics**, the hostility of the populace, and the **intervention** of the **French** led to the **British surrender** at **Yorktown** on October 17th, **1781**.

It **combines** the **resources** of a large number of **shareholders.**

General **incorporation laws** were easier to put in place because they no longer depended on special acts of legislatures.

**Limited liability** for shareholders **diminished** their **risk.** Shareholders would only lose money on shares, rather than making them responsible for the corporation as a whole.

Overseeing slaves

Spinning and weaving

Contributing to the production of the household

Spent two years liberated from societal pressures and material comfort to write ***Walden.***

Later critiqued government violations of his morality, namely slavery.

Refused to pay a poll tax to a government that supported slavery.

Introduced the practice of **“civil disobedience” **or “passive resistance” by refusing to obey unjust laws.

Despite their large diversity, immigrant communities had several things in common:

They lived predominantly in cities.

They were relatively young.

Their desire for assimilation competed with the comfort of familiar ethnic ties.

Native-born Americans encouraged this assimilation in a variety of ways:

They only taught English in public schools.

Employers insisted on English communication in the workforce.

Non-ethnic shops sold American products, making consumption a path of assimilation.

Immigrants themselves forged their own forms of assimilation:

Second generation immigrants in particular fought traditional parental authority and chose their own spouses.

Church leaders deemphasized the foreign aspects of their religion. For example, Jewish communities embraced reform Judaism, which originated in Germany, to appear less foreign.

**+New States in the West+**

Indiana (1816)

Mississippi (1817)

Illinois (1818)

Alabama (1819)

**+Wheat and Corn Producers+**

Illinois

Wisconsin

Ohio\n

Missouri

**+Cattle Raising +**

Illinois

Indiana

Iowa

Texas

Moved west and settled new land.

Moved to mill towns to become laborers.

Engaged in **“truck farming”** to supply fruits and vegetables to nearby cities.

Improvements in public health

Fewer epidemics with lower death tolls

An overall decline of the death rate

A high birth rate (an average of 6.14 children for white women in 1840)

The growth of factories and cities in the Northeast grew domestic demand.

Industrialization and urbanization in Europe drove growing global demand.

Hardier varieties of seed

Automatic reapers

Automatic threshers

**Case**

*Fletcher v. Peck*

*McCulluch v. Maryland*

*Dartmouth College v. Woodward*

**Decision**

The Bucktails

Every individual could receive salvation through individual effort.

Personal salvation also implied an obligation to reform the larger society.

Revivalism produced a crusade against personal immorality, namely the **Temperance** movement.

\n**+The \"Spoils System\"+**

Southern slave owners numbered 383,637 out of a white population of 8 million, or about **5%**.

About **one quarter** of whites lived in **slave-owning households.**

Only a small fraction of those Southern slave owners had large numbers of slaves.

Causes of the Panic of 1819

Men went to taverns to drink and play games.

Women gathered for conversation and card games.

Educated Americans read newspapers, magazines, and books.

CIty dwellers often went to the theater; Shakespeare plays and melodramas were especially popular.

**+Public Spectacles+**

New **farmlands** opened up in the **Midwest.**

**Advances** in **transportation** allowed for the shipment of food across regions.

New farming **machinery increased** the **output** per farm worker.

A **limited national government** that left most decisions up to the states.

The role of government was primarily to **remove obstacles** to **economic** and **social development.**

**Opposed** any state **nullification** of federal policy.

Tended to be **strong Unionists.**

Group of workers, small business owners, and professionals known as the Locofocos.

Banded together in the 1830s.

Represented the most radical segment of the Democratic Party.

Advocated for territorial expansion.

Supported vigorous action and even violence to combat political and economic inequalities.

Emerged in **1837.**

Became the **Native American Party** in 1845.

Nickname came from the strict code of secrecy and secret password **“I know nothing.” **

Achieved **success** during **elections** of **1854** in **Pennsylvania, New York,** and **Massachusetts** (where it gained control of the state government).

**Ban** on **Catholics** and **aliens** holding political office.

More **restrictive naturalization laws**.

Establishment of **literacy tests** for **voting.**

Often helped supervise the slave workforce.

Were spared from hard labor.

Had less access to education

Endured husbands' sexual relationships with female slaves.

Had higher birth rates but also higher rates of infant mortality.

**+Expanding Industries+**

Flour milling

Iron manufacturing

Textile manufacturing: grew threefold from **$1.5 million** in 1840 to **$4.5 million** in 1860

An inadequate transportation system

The dependence on slave labor

The lack of banks

The lack of incentives for owners of capital to invest in new industries

**Events of the 1824 Election**

The \"Corrupt Bargain\"

**The 1836 Election:**

**The Democrats**

The Democrats were united behind Jackson's choice of Van Buren to succeed him as the Democratic candidate. Van Buren won handily, with 170 electoral votes.

**The resources immigrant groups brought with them:**

Earlier immigrants from Germany and the Scandinavian countries tended to arrive with some education and capital, allowing them to set up farms and businesses in the West.

The Irish and most Southeast and Europeans came from the rural communities that had equipped them with few skills for an industrial society.

**The predominant values of each ethnic community:**

**The degree of racial prejudice they experienced:**

White immigrants with skilled or capital, such as Germans, faced less discrimination, whereas rural South Eastern Europeans ran into significant obstacles.

**Political power:**

Immigrant communities large enough to dominate a given city were able to exert political power and help their own economic advancement.

The **husband** was assumed to be the sole **wage earner.**

**Women** became increasingly **isolated** from the **public sphere.**

**Middle-class women** were encouraged to understand themselves as **\"guardians of domestic virtues.”**

A general emphasis on the private sphere:

homemaking,

entertaining, and

fashion.

The emergence of \"lady's\" literature.

Lesser importance on higher education--only Oberlin and Mount Holyoke were open to women in 1837.

Founded on the idea of a utopian society that maximizes the **self-realization** of every individual by sharing labor equally.

Tensions emerged between the ideal of individual freedom and the demands of communal living.

Many residents became disenchanted and left after a few years.

Eventually dissolved after a destructive fire in 1847.

**Sugar cane:** South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida

**Rice:** Louisiana and Texas

**Long-staple cotton:** Coastal Southeast

**+Rice+**\n

**+Sugar Cane+**

A federal treasury **surplus** was distributed as **unsecured loans** to the **states.**

The surplus fueled an **economic boom** but **strained** the **state banks** that had paid out the loans.

In **1836,** **Jackson** ordered that all **payments** to the federal government had to be made in **gold** or **silver** (or notes backed by them). \n

The **\"specie circular\"** (an executive order) caused an immediate **financial panic.**

Businesses failed, prices dropped, unemployment grew, and the country entered a **depression.**

Many **state governments** were **unable** to **repay** their debts.

**+Between 1820-1840:+**

St. Louis

Pittsburgh

Cincinnati

Louisville

**+After 1830:+**

Detroit

Milwaukee

Buffalo

Chicago

In **1819,** **Stephen H. Long **was tasked with finding the source of the **Red River.** He traveled through present-day **Nebraska, Colorado,** and **Kansas.**

While he did not complete his original mission, Long's report contained **negative views** of the **Great Plains.** Arguing that settled **agriculture** was **impossible** there, he termed the region the **\"Great American Desert.\"**

**Paine** had recently **emigrated** to America.

**Published** *Common Sense* pamphlet in **January 1776**.

Argued that the **colonists** did not benefit from continued **political connections** with **Britain.**

Stated it was **\"common sense\"** to **break** from harsh **British rule.**

**Sold** more than **100,000 copies** in just a few months

Convinced many Americans that **independence** was the only **answer** to British **“tyranny.”**

**State banks issued** their own **currencies** valued at different denominations.

**Bills** were difficult to value **without** secured **backing** and **easy to counterfeit**.

**Trust** in the U.S. monetary system **diminished.**

**Congress** decided to create a **new national bank** in **1816.**

**Immigrant Populations in American cities:**

Chicago - 87 percent

Milwaukee - 84 percent

Detroit - 84 percent

**Steamboats** were **faster** than the old barges and could **travel upstream** more **easily.**

**Canals** allowed for **affordable water transportation** in low land regions were rivers were scarce.

The **Erie Canal** connected New York to the Great Lakes and opened up the **Midwest** for **commercial agriculture**.

The **official** cabinet was composed of the **heads** of various **government departments.**

The **\"Kitchen Cabinet\"** was an **unofficial** group of Jackson's most **trusted confidants. **

Some individuals, such as **Van Buren,** were members of **both cabinets**.

Worked as common laborers on the docks, in construction, as drivers, or in textile mills. \n

Had to move about during the day without close supervision to be profitable to their master.

Performed many of the menial jobs that were performed by European immigrants in the North.

Had contact with free blacks and lower-class whites.

The **Lowell factory system** took in young women from their family farms to work in mills. The paternalistic system had some benefits, but also posed some difficulties:

Factory provided clean housing, meals, and close supervision.

Workers were paid a decent wage.

Girls had to live among strangers for the first time in their lives.

Moving from rural farming routines to modern factory life was challenging but necessary.

**+\"Hard-Money\" Faction+**

**+\"Soft-Money\" Faction+**

**+The Latin American Revolution+**

**+Post-War Economics: The Textile Industry+**

**+The Whigs+**

**+The Democratic Party+**

In **1830** Robert **Hayne,** a senator from **South Carolina**, suggested that federal policy **slowing western expansion** was a tool of the federal government to **preserve** the political **dominance** of the **East.**

Daniel **Webster,** a senator from **Massachusetts,** called Hayne's statement a broader **attack** on the **Union.** He argued that Hayne was suggesting states' rights trumped federal power.

Spain agreed to give **Florida** to the **United States.**

In exchange, the United States agreed to **renounce** its **claims** to what is now **Texas.**

**Spain** also **renounced** any territorial claims in the **Pacific Northwest. **

It **pacified** relations with **Spain** in the short term.

**+Early Mormonism+**

Founded in upstate New York by Joseph Smith who published the Book of Mormon in 1830.

Called themselves the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

Were often persecuted because of their claims of new prophets and scriptures, divine authority, and growing political strength.

Led by Smith to settlements in the midwest, eventually landing in Nauvoo, Illinois.

**+Settling in Utah+**

To control the **volatile Florida border**, the United States ordered Andrew **Jackson** to **suppress** the **Seminole** raids into American territory. Jackson did so, but also **attacked** several **Spanish forts** in the process.

When the Spanish complained, President **Adams** decided to **support Jackson.** Faced with this official position and its own **weakness,** **Spain** decided to **negotiate,** leading to the **Adams-Onis Treaty in 1819**.

**Deism:**

**Unitarianism and Universalism**:

Traditional sources of **credit,** such as **banks,** were **absent** in the South after the war.

**Farmers** relied on credit obtained at **planter-owned** country **stores.**

Used **crops** as **collateral.**

Stores could charge **interest rates** as high as **50** or **60 percent** since most local stores had **no competition.**

**Henry VIII **began the **English Reformation** by breaking with the Roman Catholic Church over a political issue.

His daughter, **Mary I,** restored Catholicism as the faith of England.

Her sister, **Elizabeth I **, undid Mary's changes and once again broke the English Church from Rome.

Her successor **James I**, while keeping the English Church separate, was sympathetic to Catholics and \"high Church\" Anglicans.

The Spanish Conquistadors:

**Hernando Cortés** conquered **Mexico** between **1518-1521**.

**Francisco Pizzaro** conquered the **Incan Empire** in modern-day **Peru** between **1531-1533**

**Francisco Coronado** explored what is now the **Southwestern United States** between **1540-1542**.

**Hernando de Soto** explored what is now the **Southeastern United States** between **1539-1542**.

**Congress** agreed to **pay off** holders of **government debt** despite the fact that many bonds were held by speculators.

The federal government also **assumed state debt,** albeit only after gaining the support of **Virginia** by locating the future **national capital** on its **borders.**

Hamilton's proposal included the **creation** of a **national bank.**

**Required** the newly formed Southern state governments to **abolish slavery.**

Offered **amnesty** to Southerners who took an **oath of allegiance.**

**Appointed provisional governors** to invite qualified voters to elect constitutional conventions.

**Required** Southern states to **revoke secession ordinances.**

Required Southern states to **nullify** their **war debts.**

Several events changed Jefferson's views of Europe:

The **Spanish**, who **controlled New Orleans**, began to **restrict** American **shipping** through **New Orleans.**

These restrictions were in **violation** of the **Pinckey Treaty of 1795**.

Spain secretly **transferred** New Orleans to **French** sovereignty under the **Treaty of Ildefonso** in **1800.**

Several factors helped encourage the growth of the textile industry in the South:

A ready supply of **cheap labor**

Accommodating **conservative governments**

An abundance of **water power**

**Low taxes**

**Tobacco** processing

**Iron** and **steel** production in **Birmingham,** Alabama

**Railroad** construction:

The number of miles of **track** in the South **doubled** between 1880 and **1890.**

They adopted a wider gauge of track to allow for **nonstop transportation** between Southern and Northern stations.

While the **Southern** share of national **manufacturing** **doubled** in the last twenty years of the century, it was still only **10 percent** of the nation's total.

The **average income** in the South was still only **40 percent** of that in the **North,** down from more than 60 percent in 1860.

In the most rapidly developing industries, many of the **profits flowed** to the **North.**

The **Anglican Church**, as the state church of England, lost its **official status** in some states, such as **Virginia** and **Maryland.**

As strict **pacifists,** the **Quakers** were viewed with **suspicion** by Americans fighting for independence.

**Presbyterians, Congregationalists,** and **Baptists** were **well-represented** among **Patriots.**

**Roman Catholics**, discriminated against by British law, also tended to **support** the **Revolution.**

The **power** of the **monarchy diminished** as **Parliament** took more **control.**

**Parliament**, **beholden** to various mercantile and **capitalist interests**, **avoided interference** with the colonies as many feared this would **disrupt trade**.

British **governors** of the colonies, usually the only **direct connection** between Britain and its imperial territories, often **performed poorly** and were easily **swayed** by **bribes.**

Some **governors** did not even travel to the colonies, preferring to **stay** in **Britain** and send **substitutes.**

Sought to build **political institutions**

Held their own **conventions** to steer their **political future**

Served in **statewide constitutional conventions**

Held **public office **of virtually any kind

**Elected 20** African American **U.S. Senators and Representatives**, plus **state lawmakers**

**Approving** political **appointees**

Levying **taxes**

Spending **money**

Creating colonial **laws**

* The **appointment of governors** was the only major power held by the **monarch** and **not granted** to the **colonies**.

The **Connecticut River valley** had fertile soil and was **ideal** for **agriculture.**

Some colonists disliked the **strict religious rules** of **Massachusetts.**

Others, viewing **Massachusetts** as becoming **irreligious**, wished to establish even **stricter Bible-based governments** elsewhere.

**Population pressure** drove colonists to look for opportunities elsewhere.

**Hartford**, established by **Thomas Hooker** in **1635**, adopted the **Fundamental Orders of Connecticut** that created a **government** very **similar** to that of **Massachusetts.** However, it allowed more men to vote and hold office.

**New Haven**, established in **1639,** was instead founded by those unhappy with **religious laxity in Massachusetts**. This was reflected in the **Fundamental Articles of New Haven**, which created a **strict theocratic government.**

**+Alexander Hamilton+**

The Road to Reform

**+The \"Redeemers+\"**

Planter elites

Merchants

Railroad developers

Industrialists

Financiers

**+Home Rule Policies+**

Reduced government **spending**

Lowering **taxes**

Eliminating the **public school** system

Cutting back on **government services**

**Large territory** granted by the King to **eight proprietors** in **1660s**

Named **Carolina** after **King Charles II**

**Designed** around the models of **Virginia** and **Maryland,** with a **stratified society** with large landowners at the top and small farmers at the bottom

**Unsuccessful** despite **land grants** and promises of **religious freedom**

Drawn up by **Cooper** help from **John Locke** in **1669**

Established **fundamental property** and **political rights**

Attempted to **split** up **land** into **equal** parcels

In reality, society divided into **wealthy plantation owners** and **small farmers**

**Political power** became proportional to **landholdings**

**Poor whites** at the bottom of society with very **limited rights**

Sir Henry **Clinton** was chosen by the British to **replace** the unsuccessful William **Howe** as the British **commander-in-chief**. Clinton pulled back British forces to New York in 1778, where they remained for over a year, primarily out of direct conflict.

Lord **Cornwallis** was **appointed** as the British **commander** in the **South** by Clinton and would be in command at the **Battle of Yorktown**.

Thomas **Sumter** was the leader of **Patriot guerilla forces** which successfully hampered British operations in the American **South**.

Nathanael **Greene** assumed command of American forces in the **South** after the defeat of Horatio Gates and was instrumental in **defeating Cornwallis** in several battles.

Spanish Assimilation Tactics:

**Allowing land ownership** among Native Americans

**Ending **the **persecution** of indigenous rituals and **religious practices**

**Eliminating** the **encomienda** system

Increased **intermarriage**

A **veteran** of several **Indian wars**

Served as the **congressional delegate** of the **Northwest Territory**

Primary **author** of the **Harrison Land Law**, which made the acquistion of Native American land easier

**Opposed** to Jefferson's preferred policy of **assimilation**

**Pursued** rights to indigenous **land** by any means necessary, including **bribery, threats,** and **trickery**

**Acquired** most of the indigenous land in **Michigan, Indiana,** and **Illinois** by **1807**

The Iroquois Confederacy

Composed of **five** different **nations**

**Controlled **most of the **Ohio Valley**

Attempted to maintain **neutrality**

**Traded** with **English** and **French** settlers

One of the few Native American groups that sided **against** the **French**.

Did **little** to **assist** the **English** war effort.

Viewed with **suspicion** by their **British allies**

**No gains** from the British **victory**

**Alliance** with **British** **dissolved** soon after

**Confederacy** went into **decline**

In **1864,** these three **states** did follow **Lincoln's** formula:

**Louisiana**

**Arkansas**

**Tennessee**

All **three** states established new **governments loyal** to the **Union.** They were also under **Union occupation** at the time.

In **New England**, **land** was **divided** between all sons based on the father's wishes.

While **all sons** received some **land**, **fathers** had a great deal of **control** over their lives.

**Sons** were **rarely permitted** to **establish** their own **households** until they were well into their twenties.

They often **competed** for their **father's affections**.

**Land** grew more **scarce** in New England due to the **growing population**.

**Young men** started to **move away** from established communities to make a new life on the **frontier**.

It contributed to the **geographical expansion **of the colonies.

It also added to **tensions** in **Puritan communities**.

Many **Europeans** learned to respectfully participate in Native American **political** and **economic rituals** to **lower** the risks of **conflict**.

**Native Americans** often utilized **European mediators** to solve disputes **among indigenous groups**.

**Both** sides **benefited** greatly through **trade** and mutual **economic support**.

Some **individuals crossed cultural borders** (Europeans adopted by Native American societies and Native Americans assimilated into European communities).

**Portuguese** merchants **controlled** most of the **slave trade** and they sold in Portuguese colonies.

Most **North American farms** of the time tended to be **small** and were worked by **indentured laborers.**

**Slaves** most often were **imported** from the **West Indies** rather than Africa due to **trade restrictions**.

The **Royal African Company** had a **monopoly** on slaves bound for English colonies and kept **prices high** and **supplies low**.

Obligated white men to defend their personal honor, often through dueling.

Prompted them to avoid the occupations of trade and commerce.

Motivated Southerners to gravitate towards the military if the planter’s life was out of reach.

Relegated white women to positions of obedience and as something to be protected.

Many of the great Southern landowners were still first generation settlers.

Only a small minority of Southern whites owned slaves.

Many planters were competitive businessmen.

**Jefferson** was a **popular** and **shrewd** president going into the 1804 election.

He used **political appointments** to **reward** loyal **supporters.**

**Federalist** candidate Charles C. **Pinckney** secured only **14** of the **176 electoral votes**.

**Republicans** also **increased** their numbers in **Congress.**

The **sedentary** life allowed societies:

to provide the intense **labor** needed for crop **cultivation**,

created the opportunity for **wealth accumulation**,

and permitted the development of **social classes.**

For instance, in what is now the Southwestern United States, agricultural peoples lived in permanent **stone houses**, **stored** excess **grain** (i.e. wealth), and were divided into several **social classes**.

Similarly, the peoples of **Cahokia** in the Mississippi Valley, a **densely populated** city, lived in permanent dwellings in a **tight-knit **community with **defined social roles** for a variety of classes.

**Liberal Republicans,** in an effort to **prevent** the **reelection** of Grant:

**Nominated** New York Tribune publisher Horace Greely as their presidential candidate.

**Shared** their presidential candidate with the **Democratic ticket**.

**Lost** against **Grant** and the Republican party in 1872, **286** electoral votes to Greeley's **66.**

It provided that the **Supreme Court** would have **six** members.

There would be a system of **lower district courts** and courts of **appeal.**

The Supreme Court was given the power to decide on the **constitutionality** of **state laws.**

Enacted in **1660**, giving the **king** more **power** over **colonial trade**

Resulted in **resistance** from several **colonial governments **

**Charles II** and his successor **James II **worked to **limit **colonial **independence**

By the **mid-1680s**, the **charter** of the **Massachusetts colony** was revoked

**New England colonies** were soon **dissolved** and **combined** into the **Dominion of New England**

The first phase took place between the spring of **1775** and the spring of **1776.**

**Conflict** was mostly **centered** in **New England** and, apart from certain cities and regions, was not widespread.

The **British** suffered **no major defeats** except for a tactical **withdrawal** from **Boston,** the root of the rebellion.

Created a **single** Northwest **Territory.**

In the **future** could be divided into individual **states.**

**Prohibited slavery. **

Protected the basic **rights** of residents (freedom of religion and right to a jury trial).

Established a **minimum population **of 60,000 for **admission** as a new **state.**

The first attempts at establishing English settlements in North America aimed to alleviate difficult social and economic conditions in England, including:

Constant **religious strife**

**Food shortages** due to a growing demand for wool (land was used for raising sheep instead of agriculture)

**Population growth** as the food supply declined

A **growing population**

A **law limiting** colonial **expansion** into Native American **territories** to the **west**

**Infrequent elections** that favored the continued political **control** of **eastern planters**

A **dispute** between Berkeley and Bacon over the **fur trade** with Native Americans

Bacon's volunteer army of **backcountry colonists **successfully **threatened** the capital at **Jamestown **twice, in the second instance actually **burning** down much of the **settlement**.

However, after **Bacon's death **in **1677**, the **rebellion** fell into **disorganization** and Berkeley re-established control.

Nonetheless, a new **treaty **opened up **more territory** to **white settlement** and Virginian **planters** came to rely more on **slave labor** rather than indentured servants. **Indentured servants**, when eventually freed, represented a **dangerous** **landless class**, while slaves were bonded for their entire lives.

**+Advocates for Education Reforms+**

**Outside** groups

The **Freedmen’s Bureau**

**Northern** philanthropic **organizations**

Northern white **women teachers**

**Black Southerners **

**+Education Reforms+**

Negotiations were a **reaction** to the British **seizure** of **American ships** in the **French West Indies.**

The United States demanded **compensation** for **seized** American **shipping.**

British **forces** were to **withdraw** from the **western borders** of the **United States.**

A new **commercial agreement** between Great Britain and the United States would be proposed.

**+Effects of Jay's Treaty+**

British agreed to **end attacks** on **American shipping** in the **West Indies.**

British recognized **American sovereignty** in the **Northwest. **

New **trade agreement** established.

Detractors, such as Thomas **Jefferson,** called the **treaty inadequate**.

The **impressment** of **American sailors** into the Royal Navy went **unresolved.**

Led by Alexander **Hamilton,** the Federalists favored a **strong central government** and a well-developed **commercial economy.**

\nRepresented by Thomas **Jefferson** and James **Madison,** supported a **weaker federal government** and envisioned their ideal American **society** as being largely **rural** and **agrarian.**

**Sir Walter Raleigh**, a veteran of Irish colonialism, was the first to explore Virginia.

**Sir Humphrey Gilbert**, also involved in the Irish wars, tried to establish in Newfoundland what would have been the first English colony in North America in 1583.

**Sir Richard Grenville**, an English colonial official in Ireland, founded the first, albeit unsuccessful, English colony at Roanoke in 1587.

**+The Whiskey Rebellion+**

In **1794,** **farmers** in Pennsylvania **refused to pay** the new **tax** on distilled **spirits.** This **\"Whiskey Rebellion\"** was suppressed after **Washington** led **15,000 militiamen** to western Pennsylvania.

The Diversity of Agricultural Production

In the **South,** agriculture depended on the **Mississippi River.** Large, **permanent settlements **(such as Cahokia) emerged.

In the **Southwest,** **complex societies** emerged that could coordinate the construction of **irrigation networks** and cities to farm in such an **arid climate.**

In the **Northeast** societies were more **mobile.** Instead, **farming techniques** were developed to **exploit ** the land as **quickly** as possible.

The share of **landowners** among **whites** in the South **shrank** from 80 to **67 percent **because of

Unpaid **debts,**

An increase in **taxes,** and

A **migration** from marginal lands to more **fertile plots** elsewhere.

At the same time, the share of **landowners** in the **black** population grew from virtually zero to **20 percent.**

Started career as **lieutenant **in the U.S. **Army**

Made his **first expedition** in **1805** to the upper **Mississippi Valley.**

Traveled up the **Arkansas River** and eventually reached what would become **Colorado** in **1806.**

His **course** took him through mostly **arid territory**.

His **logs** created the **erroneous impression** that the American **West** was mostly **desert.**

**Extended** the life of the **Freedmen’s Bureau** to **counteract** the **Black Codes. **

**Passed** a **Civil Rights Act** that became the **basis** for the **Fourteenth Amendment.**

**Overrode** **Johnson's vetoes** to both these bills.

**Confederate states** (except Tennessee) would be divided into **five military districts.**

**Governors** of these military districs needed to **register:**

**Adult black male** voters and

**Adult white voters** who had **not** participated in the **rebellion.**

**Southern** states elected **conventions** to write **constitutions** that included **provisions** for **black suffrage.**

**Southern** states could then elect **governments** that had to **ratify** the **14th Amendment.**

\nReasons for exploring the American mainland:

The **Caribbean** islands proved to have **little gold** and the **indigenous labor** force was quickly **depleted**.

The **expedition** of Hernando **Cortéz** demonstrated that the American **mainland** had large quantities of **precious metals** and other **desirable resources.**

The **war** was extremely **costly** for the **colonists** and the original goal of convincing **Britain** to **change** its **policies** did not seem to justify these costs.

The **British recruited** a wide variety of **allies,** including **German** mercenaries, **Native Americans**, and **African slaves,** which deeply angered the colonists.

The British **blockaded ports** and **refused** attempts at **reconciliation,** leaving **independence** the only **viable option** in the view of many colonists.

The **outcomes** in Louisiana, Oregon, Florida, and South Carolina were **disputed.**

The **20 electoral** college **votes** of these states could give the victory to **Hayes.**

The **Constitution** had not established a method to determine the **validity** of disputed votes.

he **decision** rested with **Congress,** but with which house or by what method was **unclear.**

**French Territory:**

**Major Settlements:**

Quebec City

Montreal

Detroit

New Orleans

Biloxi

Mobile

The American delegation to France (led by Pinckney) was shocked by **French demands** for a sizable **loan** and **bribes.**

President **Adams,** in response, sent a **report** to **Congress** to **initiate** a declaration of **war.**

This report had the names of the French officials replaced with **X, Y,** and **Z,** giving this affair its name.

The incident fueled **popular outrage** and led to a state of **undeclared war** with **France.**

It resulted in **friendlier relations** with **Britain.**

It also led to the **creation** of the Department of the **Navy** in **1798** to protect American interests in the **Atlantic.**

While supportive of the Federalist position, Washington did not publicly champion their cause. Instead, he appointed important Federalists, such as Alexander Hamilton, to executive departments.

\nHamilton was appointed Secretary of the Treasury. He was well placed to advance the Federalist cause and assume its leadership.

**Sovereignty** belongs to the **people** of a state.

Only governments that ruled with the **consent** of the **governed** were **legitimate**

Individual **freedom** of thought and **expression** were **natural rights.**

All religious **beliefs** should be **tolerated.**

Trans-Atlantic Revolutions

Factors Restricting Early Industrialization

The **Iron Act** of **1750** **limited metal production** in English colonies to **protect English manufacturers.**

**Labor supplies** were too **limited** to provide for a large industrial workforce.

The **domestic market** for **manufactured goods** was relatively **small** and supplied by English goods.

The colonies possessed **inadequate transporation systems** and had **limited **access to **energy supplies.**

Divided the territory into **ten** self-governing **districts.**

Districts could **petition** the federal government for **admission** as a **state** when their populations reached that of the smallest state.

Established a land **survey system.**

Divided the region north of the Ohio River into **rectangular townships.**

Each township was sub-divided into **thirty-six sections**.

**Four** sections were **reserved** for the **federal government.**

One section was sold to **support** the construction and upkeep of a public **school** in each township.

Land Survey: Ordinance of 1785

Early North American Colonies

The **English** established their first successful colony at **Jamestown** in **1607**.

The first **French** colony of **Quebec** was founded in **1608.**

The **Dutch** claimed what is now **New York **in **1609.**

**The Pullman Strike**

Reasons for Population Growth in New England:

The **disease environment** of New England was **less hostile **to European **settlers**.

There was a **preference** for having very **large families**.

The **gender ratio** in New England was **more balanced**.

**Life expectancy** generally was much **higher **than in other regions of the Americas, such as the Chesapeake.

**Immigrants** from **Europe** and **Africa** continued to flow into North America.

**+The Virginia Plan+**

Enlisted to **occupy** northern parts of **Ireland.**

**Encouraged** to go to **North American** colonies.

Tended to **settle** in **frontier** regions on the **western fringes** of European colonies.

**Clashed** with **Native American** populations over land.

**Tensions** arose between them and the more **established merchants** and **landowners **of the **coastal** regions.

**+Secret Societies of the South+**

The Ku Klux Klan

The Knights of the White Camelia

The Red Shirts

The White Leagues

**+Strategies of Secret Societies+**

Using **terror** to keep blacks from voting

Arming themselves to **“police” elections**

Coercing **white males** to join the **Democratic Party**

fficially known as the **Enforcements Acts** of 1870 and 1871.

Prohibited **discrimination** of **voters** based on **race.**

**Federal** district attorneys could **prosecute** individuals who tried to deny African-Americans their rights.

The **President** could **suspend** the right of a **habeas corpus** for egregious violations of civil rights.

The President could use **military force** to protect **civil rights.**

Methods for obtaining food included:

**Fishing** local waters

Methods for obtaining food included:

**Fishing** local waters

**Hunting** various animals that could be found in the region.

Methods for obtaining food included:

**Fishing** local waters

**Hunting **various animals that could be found in the region

**Gathering** plants that could be found in the region

Methods for obtaining food included:

**Fishing** local waters

**Hunting** various animals that could be found in the region

**Gathering** plants that could be found in the region

Practicing **agriculture** (deliberately planting seeds to produce a crop)

The **raw materials** available in the **New World **would increase English **economic independence** and reduce shortages.

**Colonies **would **increase** the total land available to the **kingdom **and provide a location to send people who could not find jobs in England itself.

The colonies would produce **new wealth **and represent **new markets **for **English goods**.

**+Federal Government+**

**+State Governments+**

**+The Public+**

**Northern Carolina**

The north was populated by **subsistence farmers** with **small landholdings**.

It tended to be more **insular,** more **egalitarian,** and **hostile** to the colonial **government.**

**Southern Carolina**

**+Key Players+**

**Americans** diplomats, Benjamin **Franklin,** John **Adams** and John **Jay**

**French** foreign minister, Count de **Vergennes**

**British** emissaries under new English prime minister, Lord **Shelburne**

**+Chain of Events+**

Difficulties of Land Trade

Traded Goods

**Main Causes of the Pueblo Revolt**

**Inability to protect** the Pueblos from Apache raiding

**Drought** caused food shortages and impoverishment among the Pueblos

**Suppression** of indigenous rituals and belief systems by the Spanish

Jamestown and the Powhatan Indians

Jamestown and the Powhatan Indians

The **Republican** ideal of **public education** for **all citizens** was still a long way off.

**Public schools** were **few** and far between, unable to accommodate everyone.

**Most schools **remained **private** and required a **fee**, out of reach for the poor.

**Educating women** became more **valued**, but **access** remained **limited**.

Some **schools **for women existed but mostly **catered** to **upper class** women.

Judith Sargent **Murray** argued for **equal educational opportunities** in a **1784** essay.

By **1789**, **Massachusetts mandated** that public schools allow **women**.

**Native Americans**, as \"noble savages,\" were thought to be **civilized** by **education**.

The number of **schools** in the **missions** grew to serve this Native American population.

In contrast, most thought that **African Americans** could not be **adequately educated**.

The **possibility **of **educated slaves** inspired **fear** in many slave **owners**.

Those seeking a **return** to the **Roman Catholic Church**

Those **supporting** a generally **Catholic structure** with the **monarch as head** of the Church

Those wishing to **eliminate Catholic elements **from the Church to restore **\"pure\" Christianity**

Reactions to Persecution in England:

Some Puritans reacted by **moving** to the **Americas** to establish **religious communities.**

Others directly **opposed** the **King** in England, eventually leading to **civil war** and a **short-lived Puritan republic** in the middle of the **17th century**.

**Napoleon** **barred** any ships that were **British** or had **visited British ports **from landing at **French ports**.

The **British** **retaliated** by declaring that **all ships** traveling to **Europe** had to first stop at **British ports**.

These two factors made normal American **commerce impossible**.

American **ships** were at constant threat of **boarding** by the **Royal Navy**.

French ships **preyed** on **American trading** vessels.

The French government **refused** to **meet** with **American diplomats.**

French **officials** solicited **bribes** from American diplomats in the **XYZ Affair.**

President John Adams, angered by French actions, urged Congress to take several steps, including:

**Eliminating trade** with France and its colonies

Attacking and **capturing** any armed **French vessels** on the high seas.

This \"Quasi War\" came to an **end** in **1800** when a **new agreement** was signed with the **French government.**

European States and the Slave Trade

**Portugal**, the earliest European colonial power, dominated the slave trade in the **16th century**.

**Holland**, a major commercial power, controlled most of the slave trade in the **17th century**.

**England,** an emerging imperial state, most benefited from the slave trade in the **18th century.**

American Perception of the Confederation

**The Confederation Congress** was driven by **factionalism.** Decisions required the support of most representatives to ensure passage, so factionalism **limited** the ability of the Congress to **function** efficiently.

The United States experienced an **economic depression** immediately after the **war.** A weak **central government** was deemed **inadequate** to deal with this crisis.

The **Congress** was perceived generally **ineffectual** at controlling the nation, confirmed by its **powerlessness** when facing **Shay's Rebellion. **

**+The Election of John Adams+**

In 1796, George Washington declined a third presidential term. Without Washington's mediation, the Federalists were sharply divided over choosing a new candidate. They decided on Vice President John Adams. Thomas Jefferson, the Republican rival who finished a close second in the election, became Vice President.

**The Great Awakening** was a r**eligious movemen**t beginning in the **1730s** that was a **reaction** to the perception that **piety** was **fading** in the colonies. Ministers preached the need to lead a **Christian life** and the difficulty of achieving **salvation.**

**The Enlightenment**, originating in **Europe,** stressed the role of **human reason** in bettering society. It **minimized** the role of **God** in the daily operation of the universe and stressed the idea that people could rely on their own **intellect** to **improve** themselves and **society**.

Based on **sugar production** for **export **which created far **more wealth** than mainland colonies

**Small white populations** **exploiting** large numbers of **African slave laborers**

**Lack of English** settlers and numerous **absentee landowners** contributed to **greater social instability**

Many **North American colonies **depended on close **economic ties **with **off-shore colonies **

Focused on maintaining **slavery** and **minimizing** political **freedoms**

Signed in **1795.**

The **Miami** tribe **ceded** lands in the **Northwest.**

Received **recognition** of **tribal lands** in exchange.

Established **precedent** that tribal land **claims** were **valid.**

Federal government recognized the **sovereignty** of **Indian nations**.

The **Dominion of New England** did not **collapse** due to **colonial pressures **alone. Indeed, the policies of James II caused great concern in England as well. In **1688,** **James** was **overthrown** by **Parliament,** who invited **William of Orange** and his wife **Mary** to become the **new monarchs** of England.

In New England, Edmund **Andros** was **arrested.** The new government **compromised,** agreeing to the **dissolution** of the Dominion, the issuance of **new charters** for individual **colonies,** and the **re-establishment** of **representative** colonial **bodies.**

\nHowever, the **new charters** granted by the **Crown** allowed the **English government** more say in colonial affairs. **Voting rights** also **shifted;** **property ownership** rather than church membership became the **key factor** in determining who had the **right to vote.**

Divisions in Early Virginian Society:

**\"Tidewater\" aristocrats**, living close to the coast, traditionally **controlled** the colonial **government** and were **hostile** to further **westward expansion** that would intrude on Native Americans\n

**\"Backcountry\" landowners**, while often wealthy, had **limited political power** and sought to **expand** the colony to the **west** at the expense of Native American societies

**The Bureau of Indian Affairs**

**Triangular trade** provided **slaves** from **Africa** to the **colonies.**

Slaves could work **without** a **contract** unlike indentured servants.

Slaves also had **no fixed term of service**.

They could **naturally reproduce** their numbers, creating a **perpetual subservient class**.

**New laws restricted** the **rights** of African immigrants, connecting **race** and **slave status**.

**No** American **vessels** were allowed to call at **foreign ports**.

The **economy** of **New England**, the center of the **maritime** trading **industry,** entered a **deep depression.**

Many **ship owners** **disobeyed** the law and traded anyway.

The **Federalists** saw their **popularity** **increase** as the nation struggled with **economic depression**.

Jefferson was **unsure** of the **constitutional authority** to acquire **new territory**, despite the **favorable terms**.

The **Constitution** did not **explicitly** state that the federal government could **purchase land.**

Jefferson, a strong **proponent** of **limited government**, was hesitant to go **beyond** the specific **constitutional provisions**.

However, both his **advisors** and **Congress** were **enthusiastic.**

The **Purchase** was completed and **enacted** in late **1803**.

Successes of Reconstruction

A significant redistribution of **income.**

A moderate redistribution of **land ownership**.

The **strengthening** of African-American culture and **institutions.**

Southern **white elites** were not toppled and **returned to power **within a matter of years.

The federal government had ratified **three Constitutional amendments**, but they came with **few lasting political changes**.

The nation as a whole failed to grapple with its oldest and deepest **social problem**--the issue of **race.**

Established a land **survey system.**

Divided the region north of the Ohio River into **rectangular townships.**

Each township was sub-divided into **thirty-six sections**.

**Four** sections were **reserved** for the **federal government.**

One section was sold to **support** the construction and upkeep of a public **school** in each township.

Land Survey: Ordinance of 1785