Before an essential or restrictive clause, that is, a clause that limits or defines the material it modifies. Removal of such a clause from the sentence would alter the intended meaning. For example
Between a grammatically complete introductory clause (one that could stand as a sentence) and a final phrase or clause that illustrates, extends, or amplifies the preceding thought. If the clause following the colon is a complete sentence, it begins with a capital letter. Examples of Colon Usage
After an introduction that is not an independent clause or complete sentence. Such as “The formula is ri = ai + e.”
To separate two independent clauses that are not joined by a conjunction. For example: The participants in the first study were paid; those in the second were unpaid. To separate elements in a series that already contain commas. For example:
A common mistake people make is to include apostrophes when pluralizing a number or an abbreviation. Apostrophes are generally used in contractions and to indicate the possessive case, but they are not used to form plurals of numbers and abbreviations in APA Style. Apostrophes indicates possession. For example: John’s assignment, witnesses’ testimonies, men’s sports, actress’s role Indicates omission of letters in a contraction. For example: it’s, didn’t, can’t, o’clock (of the clock)
Generally, apostrophes are not used for years unless possessive. For example:
Hint: possessive pronouns don’t have apostrophes — theirs, ours, hers, his, yours, its, whose. For example:
What is a complete sentence? A complete sentence is not merely a group of words with a capital letter at the beginning and a period or question mark at the end. A complete sentence has three components:
Some sentences can be very short, with only two or three words expressing a complete thought, like this: This sentence has a subject (John) and a verb (waited), and it expresses a complete thought. We can understand the idea completely with just those two words, so again, it’s independent—an independent clause. However, independent clauses (i.e., complete sentences) can expand to contain a lot more information, like this:
A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence. Some fragments are incomplete because they lack either a subject or a verb, or both. The fragments that most students have trouble with, however, are dependent clauses—they have a subject and a verb, so they look like complete sentences, but they don’t express a complete thought. Their called “dependent” because they cannot stand on their own. Look at these dependent clauses. They are just begging for more information to make the thoughts complete:
Does each of these examples have a subject? Yes. Does each have a verb? Yes. So what makes the thought incomplete? It’s the first word (Because, After, When, Since, If). These words belong to a special class of words called subordinators or subordinating conjunctions. If you know something about subordinating conjunctions, you can probably eliminate 90% of your fragments. What do Subordinating Conjunctions do?First, you need to know that subordinating conjunctions do three things:
How to recognize subordinators?Second, you need to recognize the subordinators when you see them. Here is a list of common subordinating conjunctions and the relationships they indicate:
Where to find subordinators?Third, you need to know that the subordinator (and the whole dependent clause) doesn’t have to be at the beginning of the sentence. The dependent clause and the independent clause can switch places, but the whole clause moves as one big chunk. Look at how these clauses switched places in the sentence:
Fixing your sentence fragmentsFinally, you need to know that every dependent clause needs to be attached to an independent clause (remember, the independent clause can stand on its own). How do you find and fix your fragments? Remember the basics: subject, verb, and complete thought. If you can recognize those things, you’re halfway there. Then, scan your sentences for subordinating conjunctions. If you find one, first identify the whole chunk of the dependent clause (the subject and verb that go with the subordinator), and then make sure they’re attached to an independent clause.
Run-on sentences are are also called fused sentences. You are making a run-on when you put two complete sentences (a subject and its predicate and another subject and its predicate) together in one sentence without separating them properly. Here is an example of a run-on sentenceMy favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is very garlicky. This one sentence actually contains two complete sentences. However, in the rush to get that idea out, I made it into one incorrect sentence. Luckily, there are many ways to correct this run-on sentence. You could use a semicolon:
You could use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so):
You could use a subordinating conjunction (see above):
You could make it into two separate sentences with a period in between:
You could use an em-dash (a long dash) for emphasis:
You CANNOT simply add a comma between the two sentences, or you will end up with what is called a “comma splice.” Here is an example of a comma splice:
You can fix a comma splice the same way you fix a run-on—either change the punctuation or add a conjunction. The good news is that writers tend to be either comma splicers or run-on artists, but almost never both. Which one are you? Finding Run-OnsAs you can see, fixing run-ons is easy once you see them—but how do you find out if a sentence is a run-on if you aren’t sure? Rei R. Noguchi, in his book Grammar and the Teaching of Writing, recommends two methods for testing your sentences. Try these two tests:
These are two things that nearly everyone can do easily if the sentence is not a run-on, but they become next to impossible if it is. Look at the following sentence:
If you turn it into a question that someone could answer with a yes or no, it looks like this:
If you turn it into a tag question, it looks like this:
The first sentence is complete and not a run-on, because our test worked. Now, look again at the original run-on sentence:
The yes/no question can only be made with each separate thought, not the sentence as a whole:
But not:
The tag question can also only be made with each separate thought, rather than the whole:
But never:
Unlike the complete sentence, the run-on sentence doesn’t pass these tests. When you try to turn the run-on sentence into a single question, you immediately see that the sentence has more than one complete concept. Make sure you try both tests with each of your problem sentences, because you may trick yourself by just putting a tag on the last part and not noticing that it doesn’t work on the first. Some people might not notice that “My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is very garlicky isn’t it?” is wrong, but most people will spot the yes/no question problem right away. Occasionally, you or your instructor will see an extra-long sentence and think it’s a run-on when it isn’t. Long sentences can be tiring but not necessarily wrong—just make sure that yours aren’t wrong by using the tests above. References:Hacker, Diana and Nancy Sommers. A Writer’s Reference. 8th edition. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2014. Ruszkiewicz, John, Christy Friend, Daniel Seward, and Maxine Hairston. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers. 9th edition. Boston: Pearson Education Inc, 2010. Lunsford, Andrea A. St. Martin’s Handbook. 8th edition. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2015. Noguchi, Rei R. Grammar and the Teaching of Writing: Limits and Possibilities. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1991.
A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone, everybody, etc.) is a word that takes the place of a noun. For example: In the sentence, Joe saw Jill, and he waved at her, the pronouns he and her take the place of Joe and Jill, respectively. There are three types of pronouns:
The plural form of some nouns of foreign origin, particularly those that end in the letter a, may appear to be singular and can cause authors to select a verb that does not agree in number with the noun.
To enhance the reader’s understanding, present parallel ideas in parallel or coordinate form. Make certain that all elements of the parallelism are present before and after the coordinating conjunction (i.e., and, but, or, nor). Examples of Parallel Ideas
With coordinating conjunctions used in pairs ( between . . . and, both . . . and, neither Examples of Coordination Conjunctions
Seriation or lists help the reader understand the organization of key points within sections, paragraphs, and sentences. Each item on the list is punctuated at the end by a comma, semicolon, or period, depending on the grammatical structure of the list. Numbers are followed by periods and are not in parentheses. In any series, all items should be syntactically and conceptually parallel. How to use seriation or listsParagraphsSeparate paragraphs in a series, such as itemized conclusions or steps in a procedure, are identified by an Arabic numeral followed by a period but not enclosed in or followed by parentheses. Separate sentences in a series are also identified by an Arabic numeral followed by a period; the first word is capitalized, and the sentence ends with a period or correct punctuation. For example: Using the learned helplessness theory, we predicted that the depressed and nondepressed participants would make the following judgments of control:
Numbered ListsNumbered lists are used for position (e.g., chronology, importance, priority). For example:
Bulleted ListsUse bullets when presenting a list of items in no particular order. Symbols such as small squares, circles, and so forth, may be used in creating a bulleted list. For example:
Within a ParagraphWithin a paragraph or sentence, identify elements in a series by lowercase letters in parentheses. For example: Within a SentenceWithin a sentence, use commas to separate three or more elements that do not have Internal commas; use semicolons to separate three or more elements that have internal commas. For example: We tested three groups: (a) low scorers, who scored fewer than 20 points; (b) moderate scorers, who scored between 20 and 50 points; and (c) high scorers, who scored more than 50 points. Alternatively, you may use bulleted lists within a sentence to separate three or more elements. In these instances, capitalize and punctuate the list as if it were a complete sentence. For example: In accordance with this theory, these relations should be marked by
Except for a few basic rules, spelling out numbers versus using figures (also called numerals) is largely a matter of writers’ preference. Consistency is the key. APA recommends spelling out the numbers one through nine and using figures thereafter. Beginning of a sentenceUse words to express any number that begins a sentence, title, or text heading. (Whenever possible, reword the sentence to avoid beginning with a number.) For example: Forty-eight percent of the sample showed an increase; 2% showed no change. Twelve students improved, and 12 students did not improve. Compound NumbersHyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine. For example: Forty-three people were injured in the train wreck. Twenty-seven of them were hospitalized. FractionsHyphenate written-out fractions. For example: We recovered about two-thirds of the stolen cash. One-half is slightly less than five-eighths. Universally Accepted UsageUse words to express universally accepted usage. For example: The Twelve Apostles or Five Pillars of Islam
Use a combination of numerals and words to express back-to-back modifiers. For example: 2 two-way interactions or ten 7-point scales.
The following examples apply when using dates:
DecadesThere are differing policies for expressing decades using numerals. For example: During the ’80s, the world’s economy grew. During the 1980s, the world’s economy grew. During the 1980’s, the world’s economy grew. TimeSpell out the time of day or use numbers. For example: She gets up at four thirty to read. She wakes up at 5 o’clock in the morning. Exact TimeUse numerals with the time of day when exact times are being emphasized. For example: Her flight leaves at 6:22 a.m. Please arrive by 12:30 p.m. sharp. AM and PMUse AM and PM, or a.m. and p.m. It is clearer to use noon and midnight rather than 12:00 p.m. or 12:00 a.m. For example: Her flight leaves at 6:22 a.m. Please arrive by 12:30 PM sharp.
Use double quotation marks to enclose quotations in text. Use single quotation marks within double quotation marks to set off material that in the original source was enclosed in double quotation marks. For example: Miele (1993) found that “the ‘placebo effect,’ which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared when [only the first group’s] behaviors were studied in this manner” (p. 276).
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