Observations can be used as part of an experiment. I get participants to solve a puzzle in a hot or cold room, then I observe them to see how stressed they look. I’m using an observation as part of my experiment (manipulating an IV to measure the effects on a DV). If I just use an observation to gather data on how stressed people are, with no manipulation or conditions, then I am carrying out observation research, not an experiment.
Different types of observation:
Naturalistic:
This technique involves observing participants in their natural environment. It’s often used where it would be unethical to manipulate variables.
Strengths:
- Participants are in their normal environment so are more likely to show valid behaviours
- Participants less likely to be aware they are being observed so will be genuine
- Useful for obtaining observations in situations where intervention would be unethical, e.g. investigating behaviours in domestic abuse, you may observe couples outside a night club on a Saturday night.
Weaknesses:
- Extraneous variables can rarely be controlled so reduces validity
- Difficult to ensure reliability of data collection, however, this can be overcome by recording behaviours via video tape/camera.
- If observers are identified validity is compromised.
Controlled Observation:
This technique involves a situation being slightly controlled by the researcher, but with no IV.Usually conducted in a laboratory type setting. For example the Milgram study. The picture below is of a study by Milgram which was a controlled observation.
Strengths:
- Data recording is likely to be reliable becuase there is a specific focus that allows data to be collected in a consistent manner.
- Extraneous variables can be controlled therefore increasing validity.
- Compared to experiments, a much greater range of behaviours can be explored giving a useful insight into human behaviour
Weaknesses:
- Participants are in an unfamiliar environment so may not react naturally
- Participants will be aware that they are in an artificial situation so they may not react naturally
- Difficult to completely represent the reality of a complex social setting so lacks ecological validity.
Overt Observation: Participants know that they are being observed. For example the TV Big Brother or any reality TV shows would be an example of an overt observation.
Strengths:
- Reduces ethical issues as the participants are aware that they are being observed.
- If observed for long periods of time, people tend to forget about observers and behave more naturally, particularly when being filmed.
Weaknesses:
- Increase of social desirability as they are aware of being observed, they may change their behaviour in a way that they feel is favourable to others, which decreases validity.
- Increase chance of demand characteristics, as the participant is aware of the researcher, they may change their behaviour in order to fit in with what they think the researcher wants to see.
Covert: Participants do not know they are being observed.
Strengths:
- Increases validity as participants aren’t aware of being observed, they are more likely to act naturally.
- Less demand characteristics as the participant isn’t aware of the researcher, there would be less chance of them changing their behaviour to fit in with the researchers expectations.
Weaknesses:
- It creates ethical issues as the participant has not consented to being observed. This makes it difficult to follow other ethics such as right to withdraw, debrief etc.
- If the participant becomes aware of the researchers presence, they may change their behaviour, thus decreasing validity.
Unstructured:
Recording everything observed during the observation
Strengths:
- Increases validity as the researcher is taking into account all behaviours that are going on. This ensures that more valid conclusions are made of behaviour, as a wide perspective is gathered, not a small focussed one.
- Applicable to a wide range of contexts. This is a key strength as this method is extremely easy to use when collecting data on many different situations of behaviour.
Weaknesses:
- Harder to record as the researcher has to pat attention to everything around them, this may cause behaviours to be missed and reduce validity.
- Harder to establish reliability because there is limited focus, therefore if it were to be replicated, the focus is likely to be different in relation to the individual carrying out the observation.
- Open to observer bias as the researcher may only note down behaviours that support their own theories, or behaviours that reflect what they hoped to find.
Structured:
Using predefined coding categories for behaviour :
Strengths:
- Easier to record as there is a specific focuc on certain behaviours. This increases the validity, as the researcher is not distracted by other behaviours, or behaviours that may be irrelevant to the research aim.
- Easier to establish inter-rater reliability. Due to the clear, planned focus on behaviour, the research could be easily used and understood in a consistent way, also improving replicability.
Weaknesses:
- Can reduce validity as there is a clear focus, behaviours that may be important may be missed due to it not being part of the planned behaviours.
- Open to observer bias as the researcher may interpret behaviours in a way that fits into the planned behavioural categories, therefore reducing validity as it may not reflect what actually happened.
Participant observation:
The researcher is involved with the people they are observing:
Strengths:
- Only way to observe some behaviours i.e. cults/gangs
- Greater accuracy and detail as the participant is involved in the behaviour. This allows the researcher to make more valid conclusions about behaviour as they have a greater insight and perspective
Weaknesses:
- Harder to remain objective as the researcher may get lost in the moment and begin to interpret behaviour at a personal level (building of relationships) which may be more opinionated rather than what is actually happening.
- The presence of the researcher can influence behaviour, reducing validity.
Non participant observation:
The researcher remains separate from the person they are observing:
Strengths:
- Easier to remain objective as the participant is away from disrtactions and can remain focused – increasing validity.
- The researcher has less influence on behaviour therefore chances of researcher effect are reduced. The participant is likely to be less influenced by the researcher.
Weaknesses:
- If participants are unaware that they are being observed as part of a non-participant observation, it can raise ethical issues such as consent and the right to withdraw.
- Less detail and accuracy as the researcher is at a distance from the participants, therefore, some behaviours maybe interpreted or recorded inaccurately – reducing validity.
Observation sampling methods:
Sometimes an environment can be too busy to try and record everything that is happening. So we decide how we are going to ‘sample’ the behaviour:
Event Sampling:
A data collection technique that uses a checklist of possible activities, which are tallied as they occur.
Strengths:
- Records are easy to obtain and analyse as researchers can clearly see the total number of behaviours foe each event. This can make analysis extremely quick and easy, especially when looking for most or least common behaviours.
- More reliable observations as the events are already planned, therefore it could be easily replicated to measure consistency of observational behaviours.
Weaknesses:
- Can miss important behaviours due to having set events already planned, other behaviours that were not considered are missed – reducing validity.
- If many events occur at once it may lead to behaviours not being recorded – reducing validity.
- It gives no indication of the amount of time spent on each behavioural category, therefore it can sometimes lead to less valid conclusions about behaviour.
Time Sampling:
Behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded at specific time intervals (e.g. every 10 minutes for a period of 15 seconds)
Types of time sampling:
Instantaneous scan sampling: The action performed at the start of each preset interval is recorded. For example, if an observer were watching one child’s aggressive behaviour in the playground, they might record at the start of every 10 second interval i.e. 10, 20, 30, 40 seconds, whether he or she displayed 1.Aggression 2.Non-aggression 3. Interacting with others. They would ignore the child’s activity at any other time.
Predominant activity sampling: The same time periods and categories can be used, but instead the researcher watches throughout the whole interval and only records the behaviour that the individual performed the most during that time.
One-zero sampling: The researcher can use the same time intervals as outlined above, but instead, they would record whether the behaviours occurred or not in the time period. For example, going back to the child aggression study, within the 10 seconds i the researcher could have seen all three behaviours (aggression, non-aggression, interaction with others), and therefore would tick all of them.
Strengths:
- Less likely to miss behaviours as the researcher usually has a short time to focus on recording behaviour, therefore is more likely to be accurate.
- It can give an indication of how much time is spent on each behaviour.
Weaknesses:
- Behaviours that occur outside the time intervals are not accounted for, therefore may reduce validity as important behaviours may be missed.
- Can be hard if lots of behaviour occurs at once
- Can miss events not coded for – reducing validity
Inter-rater reliability: Researchers observing the same behaviour and coding the behaviour in the same way. If there is low inter-rater reliability it suggests: –the coding of behaviour is either vague or lacks validity
–they’re not observing the same event.