State and Imperial Expansion
From AP World Course Description section 4.3 (see p. 57)
Summary: Empires expanded and conquered new peoples around the world, but they often had difficulties incorporating culturally, ethnically, and religiously diverse subjects, and administrating widely dispersed territories. Agents of the European powers moved into existing trade networks around the world. In Africa and the greater Indian Ocean, nascent European empires consisted mainly of interconnected trading posts and enclaves. In the Americas, European empires moved more quickly to settlement and territorial control, responding to local demographic and commercial conditions. Moreover, the creation of European empires in the Americas quickly fostered a new Atlantic trade system that included the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Around the world, empires and states of varying sizes pursued strategies of centralization, including more efficient taxation systems that placed strains on peasant producers, sometimes prompting local rebellions. Rulers used public displays of art and architecture to legitimize state power. African states shared certain characteristics with larger Eurasian empires. Changes in African and global trading patterns strengthened some West and Central African states — especially on the coast; this led to the rise of new states and contributed to the decline of states on both the coast and in the interior.
A. Rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their power.
B. Rulers used the arts to display political power and to legitimize their rule.
C. Rulers continued to use religious ideas to legitimize their rule.
D. States treated different ethnic and religious groups in ways that utilized their economic contributions while limiting their ability to challenge the authority of the state.
E. Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites, as well as the development of military professionals, became more common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over their populations and resources.
- Ottoman devshirme
- Chinese examination system (Barbarian Emperors
- Salaried samurai
F. Rulers used tribute collection and tax farming to generate revenue for territorial expansion.
G. Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade to establish large empires in both hemispheres. (see History of the Cannon)
H. Europeans established new trading-post empires in Africa and Asia, which proved profitable for the rulers and merchants involved in new global trade networks, but these empires also affected the power of African states. (Example: The Portuguese on the coast of Africa; How the British East India Company gained a foothold in India).I. Land empires expanded dramatically in size. Examples of land empires:
J. European states established new maritime empires in the Americas.
- Manchus
- Mughals
- Ottomans
- Russians
- Safavids
- Portuguese
- Spanish
- Dutch
- French
- British
K. Competition over trade routes, state rivalries, and local resistance all provided significant challenges to state consolidation and expansion.
- European rivalry in the Indian Ocean
- Piracy in the Caribbean
- State Conflict: Thirty Years War; Ottoman-Safavid conflict
- Local resistance: Such as...
ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How did empires deal with the difficulties of incorporating culturally, ethnically, and religiously diverse subjects, and administrating widely dispersed territories? | Empires expanded and conquered peoples around the world, but they often had difficulties incorporating culturally, ethnically, and religiously diverse subjects, and administrating widely dispersed territories. Agents of the European powers moved into existing trade networks around the world. In Africa and the greater Indian Ocean, nascent European empires consisted mainly of interconnected trading posts and enclaves. In the Americas, European empires moved more quickly to settlement and territorial control, responding to local demographic and commercial conditions. Moreover, the creation of European empires in the Americas quickly fostered a new Atlantic exchange network that included the transatlantic slave trade and transpacific exchange network. Around the world, empires and states of varying sizes pursued strategies of centralization, including more efficient taxation systems that placed strains on peasant producers, sometimes prompting local rebellions. Rulers used public displays of art and architecture to legitimize state power. African states shared certain characteristics with larger Eurasian empires. Changes in African and global trading patterns strengthened some West and Central African states — especially on the coast; this led to the rise of new states and contributed to the decline of states on both the coast and in the interior. |
I. Rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their power
B. States treated different ethnic and religious groups in ways that utilized their economic contributions while limiting their ability to challenge the authority of the state. Examples of differential treatment of ethnic and religious groups:
C. Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites, as well as the development of military professionals, became more common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over their populations and resources.Examples of bureaucratic elites or military professionals:
- Ottoman devshirme
- Chinese examination system
- Salaried samurai
D. Rulers used tribute collection and tax farming to generate revenue for territorial expansion.
II. Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade to establish large empires in both hemispheres.
A. Europeans established new trading-post empires in Africa and Asia, which proved profitable for the rulers and merchants involved in new global trade networks, but these empires also affected the power of the states in interior West and Central Africa.
B. Land empires — including the Manchu, Mughal, Ottoman, and Russian — expanded dramatically in size.
C. European states established new maritime empires in the Americas, including the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, French and British
Empires expanded and conquered new peoples around the world, but they often had difficulties incorporating culturally, ethnically, and religiously diverse subjects, and administrating widely dispersed territories. Agents of the European powers moved into existing trade networks around the world. In Africa and the greater Indian Ocean, nascent European empires consisted mainly of interconnected trading posts and enclaves. In the Americas, European empires moved more quickly to settlement and territorial control, responding to local demographic and commercial conditions. Moreover, the creation of European empires in the Americas quickly fostered a new Atlantic trade system that included the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Around the world, empires and states of varying sizes pursued strategies of centralization, including more efficient taxation systems that placed strains on peasant producers, sometimes prompting local rebellions. Rulers used public displays of art and architecture to legitimize state power. African states shared certain characteristics with larger Eurasian empires. Changes in African and global trading patterns strengthened some West and Central African states — especially on the coast; this led to the rise of new states and contributed to the decline of states on both the coast and in the interior. [1]
- The Safavid's use of Shiism. The Safavids rose out of the dissolution of the Timurid Empire, the state formed by the conquests of Timur, also known as Tamerlane. After his death, Timur’s empire fell to warring family members. (One of his descendants, Babur, conquered northern India and began the Mughal Empire.) In Persia, Mesopotamia, and Eastern Anatolia, the disintegrating Timurid Empire opened the way for Shi’ite sects and Sufi brotherhoods to proliferate. Taking advantage of the absence of any centralized state, Ismail—a leader from a prominent Sufi family—conquered most of these areas in the late 15th century and began the Safavid Empire. However, despite unifying Iran (Persia), much of the population did not accept their authority. After converting to Shia Islam, Safavid leaders “sought to install Shiism as the state religion so as to command the loyalty of the population.” The result was a syncretic blend of Shiism and traditional Persian beliefs. Ismail “adopted many of the forms of Persian, pre-Islamic government, including the title of Shah.” [4] He claimed to have descended not only from the Seventh Imam, [5] but also to be the reincarnation of pre-Islamic kings and prophets.[6] Ismail's religious charisma can be seen in his poetry:
Pander not to Satan
Adam has put on new clothes,
God has come. [7]
- Qing imperial portraits We saw above how important rituals were to the Chinese imperial court. During the Qing dynasty these ceremonies included the use of art. Imperial portraits of emperors adorned many of the palaces inside the Forbidden City and were an important part of funeral rituals when an emperor died. We see vestiges of ancestor veneration in the fact that some emperors performed ceremonies before portraits of previous leaders of their dynasty and even kowtowed to these portraits. [16] In the public sphere, imperial portraits were utilized to enhance the legitimacy of the emperor. Portraits of emperor Kangxi, for example, often show him surrounded by books or holding a book in his hands, a representation that serves the imperial Confucian ideology that scholarship and command of knowledge merit legitimacy for an emperor. [17] Legitimacy was a crucial factor for Emperor Kangxi. As a Manchu he needed to gain respect from ethnic Chinese; promoting himself as an accomplished scholar helped win the scholar bureaucrats and gain the Mandate of Heaven in the eyes of many Chinese.
Augustus of Prima Porta. When Caesar Augustus came to power he was welcomed by the monarchists but rejected by the conservative republicans who wanted power to remain with the traditional patrician families. Augustus commissioned this work of art to assuage the fears of those republicans who believed he was a warmonger trying to consolidate his own power at the expense of the old republic. Thus he is shown raising his hand like a strong leader but not brandishing a sword. He is poised for movement but not in a threatening or aggressive way. On his breastplate is the scene of the Parthians surrendering to Rome, one of Augustus' most important military achievements that overturned a previous humiliation by the Parthians. But this was a necessary military endeavor; the gods look on approvingly, suggesting that Augustus carries out their will. Overall this statue of political propaganda showed Augustus as he wanted to be known rather than how he actually was.
The Qianlong Emperor as the Bodhisattva Mafijusrt. During the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (1736-1796) the Qing dynasty expanded the borders of China farther than they had ever been before. China also became much more multi-cultural than it had ever been. The Qianlong Emperor used imperial portraits to represent himself to each region in the culture and dress of that region. To the ethnic Chinese (the Han) he had himself painted as a great scholar and promoter of Chinese values;[18] to the Mongols of Central Asia, he was depicted as a traditional warrior of the steppes. [19] The portrait above shows him pictured as the best known bodhisattva of Tibetan Buddhism, surrounded by Buddhist symbols. For example, he "raises his right hand in the gesture of argument while supporting the wheel of the law in his left. He also holds two stems of lotus blossoms, which serve as platforms for a sutra and a sword, the attributes of Manjusri. He is pictured among 108 deities . . . who represent his Buddhist lineage." [20]
Emperor Jahangir weighs Prince Khurram. This miniature shows Mughal emperor Jahangir, son of Akbar, weighing his son against valuables such as precious gems, gold, or other important goods. In this tradition, the son's weight of these goods was given to holy men, used to fund building projects, or distributed to the poor. The picture and the tradition it depicts were part of Akbar's project of religious tolerance. The "weighing of the ruler's son" was Hindu in origin and the distribution of wealth to the poor resembled the Muslim practice of almsgiving, one of the pillars of Islam. As Muslim rulers of a predominately Hindu empire, Akbar and Jahangir were dedicated to forging strategic alliances with local Hindu rulers. This painting shows Muslim and Hindu leaders participating together in the ritual. It also demonstrates the wealth, power, and benevolence of the Mughals. [21]
Napoleon in his Study. After a little more than a decade after the French Revolution began, Napoleon Bonaparte had worked his way through the military ranks and proved himself to be a brilliant general. In 1804, taking advantage of the uncertainties and political vacuum of the revolutionary era, Napoleon made himself emperor of France. This portrait depicts Napoleon Bonaparte in that year. The artists emphasizes his role as a tireless and productive statesman. His sword is close by, but at rest on the gilded chair. The candle behind him has burned down to a stump and the clock on the wall reads 4:13 a.m. The object of his tireless labor is on the table, the Code of Napoleon, and the book on the floor is Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans. Its presence suggests Napoleon be included with the great leaders of antiquity.
[22]
Versailles
- ↑ //media.collegeboard.com/digitalServices/pdf/ap/ap-world-history-course-and-exam-description.pdf
- ↑ The Crises of Church and State: 150-1300, Brian Tierney, (1988) p. 23.
- ↑ Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789. Volume 2 of Cambridge History of Europe, Merry E. Wiesner, (2013) p. 316.
- ↑ Understanding Shiite Leadership, p. 16.
- ↑ Understanding Shiite Leadership: The Art of the Middle Ground in Iran and Lebanon, Shaul Mishal, Ori Goldberg, (2014) p. 16.
- ↑ The Safavid Synthesis: From Qizilbash to the Imamite Shi'ism, Kathryn Babayan. Iranian Studies, vol 27, no 1-4, 1995, p. 135. Retrieved from //www.academia.edu/1064965/The_Safavid_Synthesis_From_Qizilbash_Islam_to_Imamite_Shiism
- ↑ The Safavid Synthesis: From Qizilbash to the Imamite Shi'ism, p. 135.
- ↑ 'Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire, Andrew J Newman, (2012) p. 38.
- ↑ Understanding Shiite Leadership, p. 16.
- ↑ The Safavid Synthesis: From Qizilbash to the Imamite Shi'ism, Kathryn Babayan.
- ↑ Empires, Susan E. Alcock, et al, (2009) p. 298.
- ↑ Empires, (2009) p. 309.
- ↑ Of Body and Brush: Grand Sacrifice as Text/Performance in Eighteenth-Century China, Angela Zito (1997) p.26.
- ↑ Offerings of Jade and Silk: Ritual and Symbol in the Legitimation of the T'ang Dynasty," Howard J. Wechsler, (1985) , pp. 107-122.
- ↑ Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire,"Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters, (2010) , pp. 265-270.
- ↑ The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions By Evelyn S. Rawski, (1998) , p. 286.
- ↑ Imperial Illusions: Crossing Pictorial Boundaries in the Qing Palaces," Kristina Kleutghen, (2015) , p. 50.
- ↑ //decodedpast.com/tibetan-buddhism-politics-qing-dynasty/14473
- ↑ //www.learn.columbia.edu/nanxuntu/html/emperors/
- ↑ Worshiping the Ancestors: Chinese Commemorative Portraits, Jan Stuart and Evelyn Sakakida Rawski (2001), portrait 119.
- ↑ //www.teachinghistory100.org/objects/about_the_object/mughal_painting
- ↑ //www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/Collection/highlights/highlight46114.html
- ↑ Ottoman Brothers: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Early Twentieth-Century Palestine, Michelle Campos (2011), p. 9.
- ↑ //lostislamichistory.com/non-muslim-rights-in-the-ottoman-empire/
- ↑ Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East, Z. Y. Hershlag (1997) p. 25.
- ↑ Empires and Bureaucracy in World History: From Late Antiquity to the Twentieth Century, Peter Crooks, Timothy H. Parsons (2016) p. 33.
- ↑ Voyages in World History, Valerie Hansen, Kenneth R. Curtis (2016) p. 596.
- ↑ China's Last Empire: The Great Qing, William T. Rowe (2010) p. 34.
- ↑ Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala, Fourth Edition: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatán Highlands, 1500-1839, W. George Lovell (2015).
- ↑ Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: A Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia, vol 1. John Michael Francis (2006) pp. 901-902.