What is motivation in organizational behavior?

This article is copyright of Tim Bradley - © 2019. Any reproduction of part or all of the contents in any form is prohibited.

Motivation is fundamental to understanding and shaping organisational behaviour because it reveals how and why individuals behave as they do within organisations. If business leaders seek to attract, motivate and retain talented individuals they must understand human behaviour in order to best motivate employees so that they perform their roles willingly and effectively. They also need to recognise how to best elicit the commitment of employees, so they can direct their capabilities toward achieving the organisation’s goals and objectives.

Attitudes

Individuals can hold an unlimited number of diverse attitudes. Throughout life attitudes continuously evolve through the process of socialisation. Robbins and Judge (2017) describe attitudes as “evaluative statements regarding objects, people or events”. An attitude is an intangible, hypothetical construct that one cannot see, touch or isolate. Therefore, attitudes can only be inferred through what an individual says and how they behave. Mullins and Christy (2016) note the distinction between core constructs, such as a religious beliefs which are often resistant to change and peripheral attitudes which change over time in response to new information and personal experience. Attitudes are derived from personal values and are influenced through similar sources, such as parents, friends, peer groups and role models.

Functions of attitudes

Danial Katz (1960) developed Functional Attitude Theory (FAT) which proposes that attitudes and motives are interconnected and identified four functions which attitudes perform.

Katz reasoned that if organisations focused on the function that an attitude served for an employee, they would be more successful in shaping, changing or reinforcing a desired attitude and consequent behaviour (Carpenter et al., 2013). By recognising individual differences, organisations can design jobs which align with employee needs and maximise motivational potential.

Components of Attitudes

An attitude is comprised of three components: cognition, affect and behaviour (Fishbein et al., 1975). The cognitive element of an attitude represents the opinions, beliefs or knowledge an individual possesses. The affective component reflects an individual’s feelings or emotions toward something or someone. The behavioural component describes how an attitude can influence how a person will act or behave. There is strong evidence to suggest that in order to achieve organisational goals and objectives, business leaders should seek to understand how attitudes are formed, their effect on job behaviour and how they might be modified to increase performance and job satisfaction (Robbins and Judge, 2017).

Types of job attitudes

Whilst attitudes are no definite predictor of behaviour, the relationship between attitudes and intended behaviour is significant because it enables organisations to understand how employees form positive or negative evaluations of their workplace and the degree to which employee attitudes contribute to overall organisational performance. Most research in organisational behaviour has focused on five main attitudes:

Evidence suggests that if organisations commit to improving employee attitudes, the outcome will be superior organisational effectiveness, enhanced levels of job satisfaction and higher profits (Judge and Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012). However, for an attitude to motivate an employee’s behaviour, the organisation’s behaviour should be shaped to remove obstacles and provide the freedom and opportunity for the individual to behave in the intended way.

Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction is of significance to managers because it has the potential to influence a variety of employee behaviours and is considered a significant factor affecting employees’ levels of wellbeing. It is widely held that job satisfaction has a direct positive association with motivation and job performance (Mullins, 2005). However, one may argue that despite a plethora of research, there is still little evidence to suggest a strong relationship between job satisfaction and job performance, demonstrating that for all practical purposes there is no meaningful relationship between improved satisfaction and increased levels of performance.

Theories of job satisfaction

There are various theories and models relating to job satisfaction. “Each theory focuses around one or more of the five main antecedents of job satisfaction: job conditions, personality, social influence, values and pay” (Robbins and Judge 2017). Each theory seeks to determine the exact causes which lead to job satisfaction in one employee, yet dissatisfaction in another. The four main theories (George and Jones,2012) are summarised in below:

Each theory enables managers to explore the various characteristics of job satisfaction so they can take the necessary actions to enhance satisfaction and reduce dissatisfaction felt by employees, leading to increased organisational engagement and higher levels of individual motivation.

The outcomes of job satisfaction

The link between happy workers and productive workers is a source of dissonance amongst academics and practitioners. Bassett (1994) contends that employee satisfaction is, at best, connected to workplace productivity at “only a trivial level of statistical correlation”. However, an evaluation of 300 studies performed by Judge et al. (2001) revealed a seemingly robust correlation. These contradictory viewpoints introduce doubt as to whether job satisfaction contributes to the overall performance and effectiveness of the organisation.

Podsakoff et al. (2000) suggest that job satisfaction is a significant determinant of an individual’s organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB), which includes discretionary behaviours such as speaking positively about their organisation, assisting co-workers and exceeding the normal expectations of their role. Organisational behaviour should be shaped to create a workplace that encourages supportive co-workers who exercise discretionary behaviours, which will reinforce a cycle of positive citizenship activities (Chiaburu and Harrison, 2008).

Within the service sector organisational behaviour should promote the link between job satisfaction and customer service. Research conducted by Vandenberghe et al. (2007) concluded that when employees are satisfied their behaviour has a direct positive effect on customer satisfaction and loyalty. A study conducted by the Corporate Leadership Council (2003) demonstrated that when employees felt positive about their job, they demonstrated a more positive attitude toward customers.

Motivation

Motivational theories endeavour to describe why people behave in certain ways, why people choose one course of action over another and why they maintain a chosen action over time, despite having to overcome obstacles and problems. MacLeod and Clarke (2009) argue that employee motivation is significant to organisations because highly engaged and motivated employees are the key to increased workplace performance and employee job satisfaction. Workplace behaviour is determined by employee motivation. An individual’s performance is a result of their level of motivation combined with their ability.

Performance = function (ability × motivation)

However, Kreitner et al. (1999) point out that motivation is not the only determinant of job performance. Other contributing factors include the individual’s skill level, knowledge of the task, personality and attitude, quality of supervision and relationships with co-workers (Iacob, 2010).

Theories of motivation

There are various types of motivational theories each seeking to contribute to our understanding of workplace motivation. Typically, researchers emphasise a distinction between content theories and process theories. Content theories are primarily concerned with the needs of the individual, they consider innate factors which cause, sustain or stop behaviour. In contrast, process theories of motivation examine how cognitive processes such as thoughts and decisions influence an individual’s behaviour. The following table illustrates the principal content and process theories of motivation.

Mullins (2005) points out the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic methods of motivation. Extrinsic motives relate to tangible factors such as management, benefits, company policies, and workplace conditions, which are often prescribed at organisational level. Intrinsic motives are associated with psychological rewards such as the prospect of developing one’s capabilities, positive recognition, a feeling of achievement and being treated fairly and in a considerate manner. Intrinsic motives can be determined by the behaviour of individual managers.

Attitude, job satisfaction and employee motivation

To maximise performance, it is crucial that organisations strive to create jobs and working environments which stimulate and motivate employees whilst aligning the specific needs of individuals with the long-term goals and objectives of the organisation (Latham and Budworth, 2006). However, because motivation is a characteristic of the individual, the application of motivational theories is complex because an individual’s attitude is often highly resistant to alterations to their extrinsic or intrinsic benefits (Robbins and Judge, 2017). Through understanding how an attitude is formed and its impact on behaviour, organisations can apply the appropriate theories of motivation to modify the attitude and in doing so increase organisational effectiveness.

The job characteristics model

The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) contends that jobs can be characterised by five core components: “skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback” (Hackman and Oldman, 1975). According to the model, job design influences motivation, work performance, and job satisfaction. The Motivating Potential Score (MPS) is an index derived from the core components of the JCM, which can be expressed as:

MPS = (Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance) / (3 x Autonomy x Feedback)

Research findings support the JCM, well-designed job specifications increase job satisfaction and organisational commitment through increased levels of motivation (Humphrey et al., 2007). JCM can be criticised because it focuses specifically on the individual. Peterson and Ruiz-Quintanilla (2003) argue that in collectivist cultures (such as China) job enrichment strategies may not be as effective as in cultures that promote individual achievement.

Motivation through job design

Relational job design differs from JCM, rather than focusing on making roles more intrinsically motivating, relation job design suggests that organisations should design work which motivates employees to promote the wellbeing of the organisation’s stakeholders, shifting the emphasis from the individual to those that are affected by the role the employee performs. Constructing relational jobs enables employees to see the difference their work makes to others, leading to higher levels of motivation and engagement (Devaro, 2010). Job rotation (or cross training) is a method for increasing motivation within highly routinised work environments. Slack et al. (2013) argue that shifting between tasks can increase skill flexibility and reduce monotony, leading to increased job satisfaction and organisational engagement.

Alternative working arrangements

In today’s highly diverse work environment, alternative work arrangements such as flexible working time, job sharing, and telecommuting enables employees to choose how and when their work is done. The benefits of flexible working arrangements include reduced absence, higher productivity, lower overtime expenditure and less traffic congestion, as well as greater autonomy and responsibility for the employee. Job sharing is an arrangement where two or more employees divide a traditional fulltime role. This gives employees the flexibility to work around their personal commitments and offers employers access to a pool of talent that may otherwise be unavailable. However, the overhead of managing and administrating job shares can be costly (Mullins, 2005). Employee attitudes vary, some see flexible working as beneficial to a work-life balance, while others express concerns around respect and credibility and promotion opportunities.

Recent technological developments have provided organisations with the capability to enable employees to work from any geographic location. The advantages of telecommuting (remote working) include environmental benefits, a larger talent pool, increased productivity, improved morale and reduced office costs. However, it can be argued that remote working can lead to feelings of isolation and decreased job performance (Brotheron, 2011). It has also been suggested that employees who are absent from the office are less likely to receive pay rises and promotion, because they have not put in sufficient “face-time”. From a management perspective remote working can introduce issues with coordination and knowledge transfer. There are many differences in telecommuting attitudes based on gender, personal circumstances and occupation. Overall, employees have positive attitudes to telecommuting (Grippaldi, 2002). Given the potential benefits to both employer and employee, organisations would be advised to actively promote telecommuting.

Employee participation and involvement

The purpose of Employee Involvement and Participation (EIP) is to consult and engage employees in decision making which increases their autonomy and control in the workplace. Marchington (2015) contends that EIP leads to higher levels of motivation, greater productivity, increased job satisfaction and organisational commitment, both for individuals and within teams. It is important that EIP programs consider the cultural norms in which they are implemented. Societies with high power-distance cultures are less suited to EIP because employees accept and expect differences in authority. 

Extrinsic and intrinsic rewards

Research has shown that when organisations pay more relative to the labour market, they get better qualified, more motivated employees with a greater organisational commitment (Subramony et al., 2008). This results in higher staff morale, increased productivity and more satisfied customers. Organisations must balance a competitive pay level against the increased operating costs, which could push up the final price of their products and services. Performance related pay, piece-rate pay and bonuses can be an effective way to motivate and engage workers, while turning fixed labour costs into variable costs and therefore reducing risk. Peterson and Luthans (2006) argue that in the short-term financial incentives raise employee motivation, but in the long-term nonfinancial incentives produced superior results.

Benefit packages can motivate individuals to go to work and to select one organisation in favour of another. A flexible benefits package is consistent with expectancy theory because it enables managers to link rewards with employees’ goals. Packages should be tailored to best meet the individual needs and circumstances of the employee. Organisations which implement flexible benefits are likely to see increased employee retention and higher levels of productivity and job satisfaction (Robbins and Judge, 2017). However, Lin et al. (2011) argue that in terms of employee motivation, higher salaries often outweigh flexible benefits. Due to differences in individual attitudes, organisations must understand the potential motivating impact of different benefits.

Pay and benefits represent some of the extrinsic methods an organisation can use to increase employee motivation. Research indicates that intrinsic methods, such as employee recognition programs can be used to reinforce positive employee behaviours, enhance loyalty, and promote collaboration, which results in increased levels of job satisfaction and greater organisational commitment. Recognition programs are a method of acknowledging and rewarding specific employee behaviours. They can range from a simple thank you to a large formal program with a clearly defined procedure for awarding recognition. From an organisational behaviour perspective, recognition programs are an effective method of increasing employee motivation at little additional cost. It is important however that employees see the process as fair and transparent. If managers abuse or manipulate the system it can undermine the recognition program and demotivate employees. Organisations must shape their behaviour to reflect the intrinsic or extrinsic values of employees. Those with intrinsic values should be assigned challenging work that allows the individual to full fill their potential. Employees with extrinsic values will be better motivated through benefits such as pay, status and time off from work.

Conclusion

The field of organisational behaviour provides insights which enable managers to increase work quality and efficiency through employee engagement, job design, benefit packages and balancing work-life conflicts. The motivational theories discussed vary in their predictive strength. The evidence suggests that effective job design and goal setting are fundamental to creating a motivating work environment, which in turn increases the extent to which the organisation can achieve its goals (George and Jones, 2012). Because motivation is a property of the employee it is important that managers recognise individual differences and seek to create a work environment which satisfies the employee’s needs, goals and expectations, whilst keeping sources of dissatisfaction to a minimum.

Research indicates a weak correlation between job satisfaction and job performance because satisfied employees are not necessarily highly motivated workers and vice versa. Studies suggests job satisfaction influences staff turnover, absence and employee wellbeing. There is evidence that satisfied employees are more likely to demonstrate organisational citizenship behaviours such as helping others and performing beyond the call of duty. Whilst the various theories are not conclusive, they do provide managers with a framework of how best to reward and motivate employees, so they work willingly and effectively. The ultimate problem with motivation theories is their universality as they do not adequately address cultural factors or whether a model successful in one culture is amenable and transferable to another. Technology also creates new challenges for managers. Virtual teams and telecommuting require new methods of motivation to ensure employees are creative, flexible and committed.

References

Brotheron, P. (2011). For teleworkers, less is definitely more.(Re-Search). T D, 65(3), p.29.

Buchanan, D. and Huczynski, A. (2017) Organizational Behaviour - 9th Ed. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Limited

Carpenter, C., Boster, F. and Andrews, K. (2013) The SAGE Handbook of Persuasion. California, United States. SAGE Publications, Inc

Chiaburu, S. and Harrison, D. “Do Peers Make the Place? Conceptual Synthesis and Meta-Analysis of Coworker Effect on Perceptions, Attitudes, OCBs, and Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology 93, no. 5 (2008): 1082–103.

Corporate Leadership Council (2003). Linking Employee Satisfaction with Productivity, Performance, and Customer Satisfaction. USA

Devaro, J. (2010). “A Theoretical Analysis of Relational Job Design and Compensation,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 31: 279–301.

Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. California: Stanford University Press.

Fishbein, M. & Ajzen, Icek. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behaviour: An introduction to theory and research. London, UK. Longman Higher Education

Grippaldi, J. "An Empirical study of attitudes towards telecommuting among government finance professionals" (2002). UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones. 515.

Hackman, J. Richard, and Greg R. Oldham. (1975). “Development of the Job Diagnostic Survey.” Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 60, no. 2, 1975, pp. 159–170.

Hinojosa, A. S., Gardner, W. L., Walker, H. J., Cogliser, C., & Gullifor, D. (2017). A Review of Cognitive Dissonance Theory in Management Research: Opportunities for Further Development. Journal of Management, 43(1), 170–199.

Humphrey, S., Nahrgang, J. and Morgeson, F., (2007). Integrating Motivational, Social, and Contextual Work Design Features: A Meta-Analytic Summary and Theoretical Extension of the Work Design Literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(5), pp.1332–1356.

Iacob, G. (2010). Factors that determine job performance. Studies and Scientific Researches: Economics Edition, (15), pp.Studies and Scientific Researches: Economics Edition, 01 December 2010, Issue 15.

Judge, T., C. J. Thoresen, C., Bono, J. and Patton, G. (2001) “The Job Satisfaction–Job Performance Relationship: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review,” Psychological Bulletin, May 2001, 376–407.

Judge, T.A. & Kammeyer-Mueller, J.D., (2012) Job Attitudes. Annual Review of Psychology, 63(1), pp.341–367.

Katz, D. ‘The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes’, Public Opinion Quarterly, 21, 1960, pp. 163–204.

Kreitner, R., Kinicki, A. and Buelens, M. Organizational Behaviour, First European edition, McGraw-Hill (1999).

LaPiere, R. Attitudes vs. Actions, Social Forces, Volume 13, Issue 2, December 1934, Pages 230–237

Latham, G. and Budworth, M. “The Study of Work Motivation in the 20th Century.” In L. L. Koppes (Ed.), Historical Perspectives in Industrial and Organizational Psychology (Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum Associates Inc, 2006).

Lin, Z., & Kelly, J., Trenberth, L. (2011). Antecedents and consequences of the introduction of flexible benefit plans in China. International Journal of Human Resource Management - INT J HUM RESOUR MANAG. 22. 1128-1145.

MacLeod, D. and Clarke, N. (2009) Engaging for Success: Enhancing Performance through Employee Engagement. Office of Public Sector Information, London.

Marchington, M., (2015). Analysing the forces shaping employee involvement and participation (EIP) at organisation level in liberal market economies ( LME s. Human Resource Management Journal, 25(1), pp.1–18.

Mullins, L. and Christy, G. (2016) Management & organisational behaviour. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Limited

Mullins, L. (2005) Management & organisational behaviour. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Limited

Nohria, N., Groysberg, B. & Lee, L.-E., 2008. Employee motivation: a powerful new model. Harvard Business Review, 86(7/8), pp.78–84, 160.

Peterson, S. and Luthans, F. (2006). 'The impact of financial and nonfinancial incentives on business-unit outcomes over time', Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 91, no. 1, pp. 156-165.

Peterson, M.F. & Ruiz-Quintanilla, S.A., 2003. Cultural Socialization as a Source of Intrinsic Work Motivation. Group & Organization Management, 28(2), pp.188–216.

Podsakoff, P., MacKenzie, S., Paine, J., and Bachrach, D. “Organizational Citizenship Behaviours: A Critical Review of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature and Suggestions for Future Research,” Journal of Management 26, no. 3 (2000): 513–63.

Robbins, P. and Judge, T. (2017) Organizational Behaviour. 17th ed. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Limited

Schermerhorn, J., Osborn, R., Hunt, J., Uhl-Bien, M. (2012) Organizational Behaviour 12th ed. New Jersey, United States. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Slack, N., Brandon-Jones, A., Johnston R. (2013) Operations Management. 7th ed. Harlow: Pearson

Subramony, M., Krause, N., Norton, J., Burns, G. (2008). The Relationship Between Human Resource Investments and Organizational Performance: A Firm-Level Examination of Equilibrium Theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.93(4), pp.778-788

Vandenberghe, K. Bentein, R. Michon, J. Chebat, M. Tremblay, and J. Fils, “An Examination of the Role of Perceived Support and Employee Commitment in Employee-Customer Encounters,” Journal of Applied Psychology 92, no. 4 (2007)