To what extent did japan’s experience during the 1920s and 1930s resemble germany’s?

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tem to work out differences between two branches, with special regulations have expressed concern that German employers and workers.

that govern labor-management relations workers place more importance on their The revolutionary fervor that led to in the coal, iron, and steel industries. The works councils than on local unions, the collapse of Czarist rule in Russia supervisory board of the works council is and in a U.S. system of decentralized was spreading across Europe, and po- comprised of an equal number of share- employee-controlled decisionmaking, litical leaders sought to quell that force holder and labor representatives, in ad- workers' power and influence would diin Germany with further advances in dition to a neutral member. A “labor di- minish further. U.S. unionists believe worker copartnership. The Weimar rector” serves on a management board that this factor would win management's government's Codetermination Act of with rights equal to others. This "super- favor. 1920 was of limited success, due not to codetermination" differs from general But the overall policy aspects could inherent weaknesses in the council sys- worker participation because most of the signal an increase in international and tem, but to the serious postwar eco- firm's power lies with the management national power and influence wielded by nomic conditions of Germany; this board, which usually consists of three or international unions and the AFL-CIO. Just would have a similar impact on labor- four members, although the board selects as importantly, workers would obtain a management cooperation in the depres- the representatives. As one of the most say and not merely a consultative role in sion-torn United States.20 Due to the powerful members of company man- the direction of the U.S. economy. And worldwide economic depression, labor agement, the Labor Manager, who is se- in mixed union-nonunion settings, the conflict, not worker participation, con- lected by the trade union in consultation trend has been for union leaders to astributed to the social upheavals that led with the workers and managers, is con- sume representation roles in German and to the cataclysm of World War II. With sidered one of the key elements in this U.S. workplace partnerships. that in mind, Allied administrators in "super-codetermination."

What degree of power or say would postwar Europe viewed the anti-Nazi In either general worker participation unions have in the United States? The German Trade Union Federation (DGB- or general codetermination system, but Steelworkers union, for example, seems Deutsche Gewerkschaftbund) as a foun- particularly with the latter, a works coun- to be heading in the direction of full dation for a new democratic industrial cil at the plant level has the right to help codetermination. But could corporations society.

determine wages and working condi- silence the workers' voice on the boards In its least complicated interpretation, tions; hours, including overtime; holi- of directors by not seating a union repreGerman "codetermination" consists of days and working schedules; introduc- sentative on the board? Would legislapower sharing in a "works council” sys- tion and use of new technologies; and tion protect this voice? tem. Employees in establishments of safety and health. A works council also Whatever the answers might be, the five or more workers elect representa- has extensive rights to participate in mat- German system warrants consideration tives to a "works committee"-usually ters concerning the organization of because it appears to establish a framewith a specific agenda or function to workplaces, work sequences, and the work for a European system of emmonitor. Work committee representa- work environment as well as in staff ployer-employee partnership in the tives at larger facilities serve on “works planning and vocational training matters. single economic market of the European councils” (the number of representatives A separate youth and trainee delegation Community. While that system slowly is proportionate to the enterprises' size), also is elected to the works council. evolves, with competing forces pulling which share decisionmaking with man- In general, the laws direct the works policymakers in different directions, it agement representatives on a "supervi- councils to cooperate with the unions will have a distinct German flavor. sory board” roughly comparable to a and employers for the "well being of the board of directors of a U.S. company. establishment and its employees with Several legislative acts codify the role due consideration for the general wel

The European model trade unions play in the process, and the fare." But the council functions similarly On January 1, 1993, the 12 nations in the Works Constitution Act of 1952 speci- to American local trade unions in han- European Community, culminating a fies that in the second level of the "works dling grievances, administering plant 40-year effort, officially became a single council" process, labor representatives welfare agencies, and monitoring labor economic market. The Community must account for one-third of the mem- laws and collective bargaining agree- Charter of Fundamental Social Rights of bers of the supervisory board of firms ments, such as concluding supplemen- Workers, adopted by ministers of the with between 500 and 2,000 employees. tary agreements on wages and working European Community countries in DeThe Codetermination Act of 1976 conditions. Strikes and other disputes are cember 1989, authorized national represupplements that law, providing for an referred to arbitration during the life of sentatives to issue ground rules, or “diequal number of trade union representa- the contract.

rectives," for the European organization. tives from inside the firm and outside the The general view is that trade unions A particular directive provides for "inGerman Labor Federation. Legislation are fairly weak at the local level: real in- formation, consultation, and participadoes not require trade union membership fluence in shared decisions is wielded by tion for workers." It would require multion smaller works councils, but approxi- the works councils. But the DGB's influ- national corporations operating in more mately 80 percent of those elected are ence, among workers and in the political than one member country of the Eurounion members.

system, has strengthened as a result of pean Community to form works counThe German system is divided into codetermination. U.S. union officials cils. All member nations except the